Carbohydrates for training and competition
Open accessAbstract
An athlete's carbohydrate intake can be judged by whether total daily intake and the timing of consumption in relation to exercise maintain adequate carbohydrate substrate for the muscle and central nervous system ("high carbohydrate availability") or whether carbohydrate fuel sources are limiting for the daily exercise programme ("low carbohydrate availability"). Carbohydrate availability is increased by consuming carbohydrate in the hours or days prior to the session, intake during exercise, and refuelling during recovery between sessions. This is important for the competition setting or for high-intensity training where optimal performance is desired. Carbohydrate intake during exercise should be scaled according to the characteristics of the event. During sustained high-intensity sports lasting ~1 h, small amounts of carbohydrate, including even mouth-rinsing, enhance performance via central nervous system effects. While 30-60 g · h(-1) is an appropriate target for sports of longer duration, events >2.5 h may benefit from higher intakes of up to 90 g · h(-1). Products containing special blends of different carbohydrates may maximize absorption of carbohydrate at such high rates. In real life, athletes undertake training sessions with varying carbohydrate availability. Whether implementing additional "train-low" strategies to increase the training adaptation leads to enhanced performance in well-trained individuals is unclear.
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Athletes involved in moderate and high-volume training need greater amounts of carbohydrate and protein in their diet to meet macronutrient needs.
“However, athletes involved in moderate and high-volume training need greater amounts of carbohydrate and protein (discussed later) in their diet to meet macronutrient needs [50].”
From ISSN exercise & sports nutrition review update: research & recommendations (2018) · cites this paper as [50]
Table II in “Acute strategies to promote high carbohydrate availability for exercise” gives higher daily carbohydrate targets for moderate and high training loads. The “Well supported principles” section discusses adding protein when carbohydrate intake is insufficient for refuelling, but does not say that moderate- or high-volume training requires greater protein intake. Page numbers were not provided. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAthletes involved in high volume intense training may need to consume 8-10 g/day of carbohydrate (400-1500 g/day for 50-150 kg athletes) in order to maintain muscle glycogen levels.
“Research has also shown that athletes involved in high volume intense training (e.g., 3–6 h per day of intense training in 1–2 daily workouts for 5–6 days per week) may need to consume 8–10 g/day of carbohydrate (i.e., 400–1500 g/day for 50–150 kg athletes) in order to maintain muscle glycogen levels [50].”
From ISSN exercise & sports nutrition review update: research & recommendations (2018) · cites this paper as [50]
Table II (page unavailable) recommends 6–10 g/kg/day for 1–3 hours of moderate-to-high-intensity exercise and 8–12 g/kg/day for more than 4–5 hours; the Well supported principles section links daily carbohydrate intake to glycogen restoration. The citing sentence omits “per kg” from its 8–10 g/day figure, and the paper does not specify its 1–2 workouts on 5–6 days per week schedule. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAthletes involved in moderate amounts of intense training typically need to consume 5-8 g/kg/day or 250-1200 g/day for 50-150 kg athletes of carbohydrate to maintain liver and muscle glycogen stores.
“In terms of carbohydrate needs, athletes involved in moderate amounts of intense training (e.g., 2–3 h per day of intense exercise performed 5–6 times per week) typically need to consume a diet consisting of 5–8 g/kg/day or 250–1200 g/day for 50–150 kg athletes of carbohydrate to maintain liver and muscle glycogen stores [23, 24, 50].”
From ISSN exercise & sports nutrition review update: research & recommendations (2018) · cites this paper as [50]
Table II (Acute strategies to promote high carbohydrate availability for exercise; page unavailable) recommends daily carbohydrate intake based on exercise load, and the Well supported principles section links that intake to glycogen restoration. But for moderate-to-high-intensity exercise lasting 1–3 hours per day, Table II recommends 6–10 g/kg/day, not 5–8 g/kg/day. The paper also does not give the stated 250–1200 g/day range or specify training 5–6 times per week. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredComplete replenishment of muscle glycogen stores typically unfolds over a 24-36 h period post-exercise, provided that 7-12 g·kg−1 carbohydrate are consumed per day.
“Complete replenishment of muscle glycogen stores typically unfolds over a 24–36 h period post-exercise, provided that 7–12 g·kg−1 carbohydrate are consumed per day [15–18].”
From Nutritional Strategies to Improve Post-exercise Recovery and Subsequent Exercise Performance: A Narrative Review (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
In “Acute strategies to promote high carbohydrate availability for exercise” (page unavailable), the paper says glycogen stores can normalize within 24 hours with reduced training and adequate fuel, and that high glycogen concentrations can be achieved with 24–36 hours of high carbohydrate intake and rest. Table II gives 7–12 g/kg per 24 hours for general fuelling, but does not establish that this entire intake range typically produces complete post-exercise replenishment in 24–36 hours. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCarbohydrate availability during exercise is ergogenic as CHO feeding can help maintain plasma glucose and prevent hypoglycemia, spare hepatic glycogen, and delay muscle glycogen depletion.
“It is well documented that carbohydrate availability during exercise is ergogenic as CHO feeding can help maintain plasma glucose and prevent hypoglycemia, spare hepatic glycogen, and delay muscle glycogen depletion [195–198].”
From International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutritional concerns of the female athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [195]
The “Carbohydrate intake during exercise” section (page not provided) says carbohydrate feeding can enhance performance, prevent low blood glucose, and spare muscle glycogen, supporting much of the claim. It does not say that feeding spares hepatic glycogen; the passages found on glycogen do not establish that mechanism. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the absence of muscle damage, a carbohydrate intake of 8-12 g/kg/24 h for 36-48 h in combination with exercise taper can supercompensate muscle glycogen.
“In the absence of muscle damage, a CHO intake of 8-12 g/kg/ 24 h for 36-48 h in combination with exercise taper can supercompensate”
From Postexercise muscle glycogen resynthesis in humans. (2017) · cites this paper as [23]
The ‘Acute strategies to promote high carbohydrate availability for exercise’ section links high carbohydrate intake and reduced training or rest with elevated muscle glycogen, and Table II recommends 36–48 hours of carbohydrate loading. But its loading target is 10–12, not 8–12, g/kg per 24 hours. The section’s absence-of-severe-muscle-damage qualification concerns normalization of glycogen stores, rather than explicitly qualifying supercompensation. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCurrent sports nutrition guidelines for muscle glycogen storage provide recommendations for short-term (0-6 h post glycogen-depleting exercise) and longer-term (12-48 h) refuelling.
“Current sports nutrition guidelines for muscle glycogen storage, summarized in Table 2 , provide recommendations for both short-term (e.g. 0-6 hours post glycogen-depleting exercise) and longer-term (12-48 h) refuelling (23, 105).”
From Postexercise muscle glycogen resynthesis in humans. (2017) · cites this paper as [23]
The paper’s ‘Well supported principles’ distinguish early refuelling from longer recovery periods of 24 hours. Table II recommends carbohydrate intake for the first four hours when recovery time is short, then a return to daily fuel needs. These passages support short- and longer-term guidance, but do not specify a 12–48-hour post-exercise refuelling window; Table II’s 36–48-hour recommendation concerns pre-event carbohydrate loading. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDuring longer recovery periods (6 h+), it does not seem to matter whether carbohydrate is consumed as meals or frequent snacks, or in liquid or solid form, as long as sufficient carbohydrate is consumed.
“In these circumstances, it doesn't seem to matter whether CHO is consumed as meals or frequent snacks, or in liquid or solid form as long as sufficient CHO is consumed”
From Postexercise muscle glycogen resynthesis in humans. (2017) · cites this paper as [23]
The “Well supported principles” section says that with adequate energy and carbohydrate over a 24-hour recovery period, the type, pattern and timing of meals and snacks can be chosen for practicality. It does not extend that flexibility to all periods of 6 hours or more: for intervals under 8 hours, it recommends prompt carbohydrate intake and notes a possible benefit from frequent small feedings. The cited passage does not explicitly compare liquid with solid carbohydrate during recovery. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAn intake of ~20-25 g of high quality protein appears to optimize the effect of protein addition on glycogen storage when carbohydrate intake is sub-optimal.
“An intake of ~20-25 g of high quality protein appears to optimize this effect while also meeting goals for post-exercise muscle protein synthesis”
From Postexercise muscle glycogen resynthesis in humans. (2017) · cites this paper as [23]
Figure 1 (Summary and future directions for research; page unavailable) reports that adding approximately 20 g of protein enhances glycogen synthesis when carbohydrate intake is below refuelling guidelines. The copy does not establish that 20–25 g is the optimal dose, specify high-quality protein, or show that this dose meets post-exercise muscle-protein-synthesis goals. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCarbohydrate ingestion during endurance exercise is a well-established strategy for enhancing performance.
“Carbohydrate ingestion during endurance exercise is a well-established strategy for enhancing performance (1 -3).”
From Carbohydrate ingestion during prolonged exercise and net skeletal muscle glycogen utilization: A meta-analysis. (2026) · cites this paper as [3]
Optimal carbohydrate in the diet on a daily basis, in the hours leading up to exercise, throughout exercise and in the hours after exercise can ensure endogenous glycogen stores are maintained and support many types of exercise performance.
“Optimal carbohydrate in the diet on a daily basis, in the hours leading up to exercise, throughout exercise and in the hours after exercise can ensure endogenous glycogen stores are maintained and support many types of exercise performance [41–43, 50].”
From ISSN exercise & sports nutrition review update: research & recommendations (2018) · cites this paper as [50]
CHO requirements may be low when training load is light/moderate and glycogen utilization or replacement requirement is modest.
“CHO requirements may be low on days or for athletes where a light/moderate training load has only a modest requirement for glycogen utilization or replacement (23).”
From Postexercise muscle glycogen resynthesis in humans. (2017) · cites this paper as [23]
Current sports nutrition guidelines no longer promote a universal message of high CHO intakes at all times or the need to maximize muscle glycogen storage.
“Current sports nutrition guidelines no longer promote a universal message of 'high CHO intakes at all time' or the need to maximize muscle glycogen storage.”
From Postexercise muscle glycogen resynthesis in humans. (2017) · cites this paper as [23]
An intake of ~20-25 g of high quality protein meets goals for post-exercise muscle protein synthesis.
“An intake of ~20-25 g of high quality protein appears to optimize this effect while also meeting goals for post-exercise muscle protein synthesis”
From Postexercise muscle glycogen resynthesis in humans. (2017) · cites this paper as [23]
The figure caption in “Summary and future directions for research” discusses approximately 20 g of protein enhancing post-exercise glycogen synthesis when carbohydrate intake is low, not meeting a muscle-protein-synthesis goal. Searches for “muscle protein synthesis” and “high quality protein 20 25 g” found no passage in the paper establishing the claimed dose for that goal; the References section lists a study on protein synthesis but gives no dose recommendation. (LLM, conf=0.75)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIf rapid recovery is required due to limited time, the priority should be to consume large amounts of daily carbohydrates (>8 g·kg−1 body mass·day−1) and to eat a high carbohydrate meal within two hours following exercise with at least 1.2 g·kg−1·h−1 for the first four hours of recovery.
“Hence, if rapid recovery is required due to a limited time period available, the priority should be to consume large amounts of daily carbohydrates (>8 g·kg−1 body mass·day−1) and to eat a high carbohydrate meal within two hours following exercise with at least 1.2 g·kg−1·h−1 for the first four hours of recovery [38].”
From The 4R’s Framework of Nutritional Strategies for Post-Exercise Recovery: A Review with Emphasis on New Generation of Carbohydrates (2020) · cites this paper as [38]
Nutritional recommendations for competition performance promote strategies to achieve high CHO availability, including adequate pre-exercise glycogen concentrations and additional CHO intake during competition.
“Thus, nutritional recommendations for competition performance promote strategies to achieve “high CHO availability”, in the form of adequate pre-exercise glycogen concentrations and additional CHO intake during competition to meet the specific fuel needs of the event [1,2].”
From Periodization of carbohydrate intake: short-term effect on performance (2016) · cites this paper as [1]
For races shorter than 90 min, it is sufficient to normalize the superior glycogen concentrations associated with endurance training, typically achieved with carbohydrate intakes of 7-10 g/kg body mass for 24 hr.
“For races <90-min duration (e.g., 10,000-m track race, cross country, half marathon, and 20-km walks), it is sufficient to normalize the superior glycogen concentrations associated with endurance training; this is typically achieved with CHO intakes of 7-10 g/kg BM for 24 hr (Burke et al., 2011).”
From Contemporary Nutrition Strategies to Optimize Performance in Distance Runners and Race Walkers (2019) · cites this paper as Burke et al., 2011
A preevent carbohydrate-focused meal and a small carbohydrate-rich snack during the race warm-up contribute to fuel availability.
“Further contributions to fuel availability are provided by a preevent CHO-focused meal and a small CHO-rich snack (e.g., sports gel or drink) during the race warm-up.”
From Contemporary Nutrition Strategies to Optimize Performance in Distance Runners and Race Walkers (2019) · cites this paper as Burke et al., 2011
More contemporary recommendations suggest smaller amounts of carbohydrate for shorter duration events and higher rates of intake for longer events lasting more than 2.5 hr.
“More contemporary recommendations (Burke et al., 2011;Thomas et al., 2016), however, suggest smaller amounts for shorter duration events and higher rates of intake for longer events (>2.5 hr), based on the mechanism of likely benefits to performance as well as the recognition that higher amounts can be tolerated and utilized than previously considered.”
From Contemporary Nutrition Strategies to Optimize Performance in Distance Runners and Race Walkers (2019) · cites this paper as Burke et al., 2011
The contemporary carbohydrate-loading protocol is an abbreviated version of the original involving 36-48 hr of carbohydrate intakes targeting 10-12 g/kg/day.
“The contemporary CHO loading protocol is an abbreviated version of the original involving 36-48 hr of CHO intakes targeting 10-12 g•kg -1 •day -1 (Burke et al., 2011).”
From Contemporary Nutrition Strategies to Optimize Performance in Distance Runners and Race Walkers (2019) · cites this paper as Burke et al., 2011
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“Some opportunities exist, however, to enhance glycogen storage from a given amount of carbohydrate; these include use of high molecular weight glucose polymers (Piehl Aulin, Soderlund, & Hultman, 2000), co-ingestion of large amounts of caffeine (Pedersen et al., 2008), and prior creatine loading (Robinson, Sewell, Hul…”
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Self-citationCarbohydrate Availability and Training Adaptation: Effects on Cell Metabolism
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Self-citationEffects of short-term fat adaptation on metabolism and performance of prolonged exercise
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Self-citationA Low Glycemic Index Meal before Exercise Improves Endurance Running Capacity in Men
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Carbohydrate Administration and Exercise Performance: What Are the Potential Mechanisms Involved?
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Carbohydrate intake during prolonged cycling minimizes effect of glycemic index of preexercise meal
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Carbohydrate Ingestion during Endurance Exercise Improves Performance in Adults1,2
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Oxidation of Solid versus Liquid CHO Sources during Exercise
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Self-citationLong-term fat diet adaptation effects on performance, training capacity, and fat utilization
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Nutritional strategies to influence adaptations to training
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CHO Oxidation from a CHO Gel Compared with a Drink during Exercise
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Self-citationEffect of Carbohydrate Intake on Half-Marathon Performance of Well-Trained Runners
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Self-citationImpact of carbohydrate supplementation during endurance training on glycogen storage and performance
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Failure to Repeatedly Supercompensate Muscle Glycogen Stores in Highly Trained Men
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Self-citationOptimizing training adaptations by manipulating glycogen
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Increased Carbohydrate Oxidation after Ingesting Carbohydrate with Added Protein
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Self-citationCarbohydrate Oxidation from a Drink during Running Compared with Cycling Exercise
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Self-citationEvidence of a Carbohydrate Dose and Prolonged Exercise Performance Relationship
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Carbohydrate Availability and Training Adaptation
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“This finding is not surprising given that dietary protein is not a preferred energy source and the dietary carbohydrate intakes in the higher protein treatment were below recommended intakes for endurance athletes (6–10 g of carbohydrate/kg/d) [3].”
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Postexercise muscle glycogen resynthesis in humans.
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Self-citationCarbohydrate availability and exercise training adaptation: Too much of a good thing?
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Self-citationNew strategies in sport nutrition to increase exercise performance
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Re-Examining High-Fat Diets for Sports Performance: Did We Call the ‘Nail in the Coffin’ Too Soon?
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Carbohydrate Dependence During Prolonged, Intense Endurance Exercise
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Contemporary Nutrition Strategies to Optimize Performance in Distance Runners and Race Walkers
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Beyond muscle hypertrophy: why dietary protein is important for endurance athletes
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Self-citationKetogenic low-CHO, high-fat diet: The future of elite endurance sport?
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Glycogen availability and skeletal muscle adaptations with endurance and resistance exercise
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Self-citationExercise with low glycogen increases PGC-1α gene expression in human skeletal muscle
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Effect of a Ketogenic Diet on Submaximal Exercise Capacity and Efficiency in Runners
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Periodization of carbohydrate intake: short-term effect on performance
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Iron Metabolism: Interactions with Energy and Carbohydrate Availability
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<p>Impact Of Ketogenic Diet On Athletes: Current Insights</p>
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“Complete replenishment of muscle glycogen stores typically unfolds over a 24–36 h period post-exercise, provided that 7–12 g·kg −1 carbohydrate are consumed per day [15–18].”
Increased Protein Requirements in Female Athletes after Variable-Intensity Exercise
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Nutritional Considerations for the Vegan Athlete
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“d [20,54]; however, there is scientific consensus that athletes of all persuasions require higher intakes to optimize training ad-”
BackgroundLow Energy Availability, Plasma Lipids, and Hormonal Profiles of Recreational Athletes
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Postexercise Cold-Water Immersion Does Not Attenuate Muscle Glycogen Resynthesis
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Caffeine Increases Whole-Body Fat Oxidation during 1 h of Cycling at Fatmax
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- Authors
- Burke, L. M., Hawley, J. A., Wong, S. H. S., & Jeukendrup, A. E.
- Affiliations
- Australian Sports Commission (AU)
- RMIT University (AU)
- Chinese University of Hong Kong (HK)
- University of Birmingham (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Burke, Louise M.
- Venue
- Journal of Sports Sciences
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2011-01
- Volume
- 29
- Issue
- sup1
- Pages
- S17-S27
- ISSN
- 0264-0414 (ISSN-L)
- 1466-447X
- OpenAlex
- W2102043517
- Semantic Scholar
- 251f6866f8f77ca236cdeed7fbd24f66342228cb
- Cited by
- 985
- References
- 80
- Citations by year
- 2026: 75 · 2025: 85 · 2024: 73 · 2023: 89 · 2022: 75 · 2021: 86 · 2020: 80 · 2019: 72 · 2018: 59 · 2017: 73 · 2016: 57 · 2015: 41 · 2014: 52 · 2013: 48 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 3.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Sports Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Bank (Australian Catholic University) (submittedVersion)
- RMIT Research Repository (RMIT University Library) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion)
- University of Birmingham Research Portal (University of Birmingham) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Complementary and alternative medicine › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Keywords
- carbohydrate intake, carbohydrate availability, sports nutrition, mouthwash, high-intensity training, endurance events, carbohydrate absorption
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Physiological, Energy Intake, Central Nervous System, Diet, Dietary Carbohydrates, Drug Administration Schedule, Energy Metabolism, Humans, Intestinal Absorption, Nutritional Requirements, Physical Education and Training, Physical Endurance, Rest, Sports, Exercise, Athletic Performance
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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