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ChatGPT: Bullshit spewer or the end of traditional assessments in higher education?
Open accessAbstract
ChatGPT is the world’s most advanced chatbot thus far. Unlike other chatbots, it can create impressive prose within seconds, and it has created much hype and doomsday predictions when it comes to student assessment in higher education and a host of other matters. ChatGPT is a state-of-the-art language model (a variant of OpenAI’s Generative Pretrained Transformer (GPT) language model) designed to generate text that can be indistinguishable from text written by humans. It can engage in conversation with users in a seemingly natural and intuitive way. In this article, we briefly tell the story of OpenAI, the organisation behind ChatGPT. We highlight the fundamental change from a not-for-profit organisation to a commercial business model. In terms of our methods, we conducted an extensive literature review and experimented with this artificial intelligence (AI) software. Our literature review shows our review to be amongst the first peer-reviewed academic journal articles to explore ChatGPT and its relevance for higher education (especially assessment, learning and teaching). After a description of ChatGPT’s functionality and a summary of its strengths and limitations, we focus on the technology’s implications for higher education and discuss what is the future of learning, teaching and assessment in higher education in the context of AI chatbots such as ChatGPT. We position ChatGPT in the context of current Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIEd) research, discuss student-facing, teacher-facing and system-facing applications, and analyse opportunities and threats. We conclude the article with recommendations for students, teachers and higher education institutions. Many of them focus on assessment.
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“The advent of GenAI has unveiled a plethora of threats to higher education and the broader societal fabric, encompassing concerns over authorship, copyright infringement, and the potential for misuse in activities such as spamming, disseminating fake news, creating malware, and hacking (Marcus, 2023;Rudolph et al., 2023aRudolph et al., , 2023b)).”
From Higher Education's Generative Artificial Intelligence Paradox: The Meaning of Chatbot Mania (2024) · cites this paper as Rudolph et al., 2023a
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“It is considered by many as the most powerful AI tool ever crated [9].”
From New Era of Artificial Intelligence in Education: Towards a Sustainable Multifaceted Revolution (2023) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“While AI technology offers promising ability for personalized learning experiences, efficient assessment, and adaptive feedback, it also presents novel challenges to the dynamics of the traditional educational bond [9].”
From New Era of Artificial Intelligence in Education: Towards a Sustainable Multifaceted Revolution (2023) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The diverse learning trajectories observed in these cases illustrate how AI tools can facilitate non-linear, adaptive learning processes by enabling students to dynamically integrate new information with prior knowledge and external resources [15, 16].”
From Scaffolding Creativity: Integrating Generative AI Tools and Real-World Experiences in Business Education (2025) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“It is more student-friendly and can provide more need-based assistance than other AWE tools, as suggested by Guo et al. (2022) and Rudolph et al. (2023).”
From Impact of ChatGPT on ESL students’ academic writing skills: a mixed methods intervention study (2024) · cites this paper as Rudolph et al. (2023)
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“On the other hand, the promotion of learner autonomy and peer collaboration are similar to findings in the AWE literature (Dai et al., 2023;Rudolph et al., 2023).”
From Impact of ChatGPT on ESL students’ academic writing skills: a mixed methods intervention study (2024) · cites this paper as Rudolph et al., 2023
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“GPT-3's training on a vast corpus of 45 terabytes of text, sourced from a variety of internet-based entities like Common Crawl and Wikipedia, set a precedent for the scale of data utilised in AI development (Brown et al., 2020;Rudolph et al., 2023a).”
From Higher Education's Generative Artificial Intelligence Paradox: The Meaning of Chatbot Mania (2024) · cites this paper as Rudolph et al., 2023a
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“They highlight the transformative potential of generative AI in revolutionizing academic practices but also caution about its ability to facilitate academic dishonesty, such as through generating test answers [25].”
From Generative AI and Academic Integrity in Higher Education: A Systematic Review and Research Agenda (2025) · cites this paper as [25]
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“They highlight the transformative potential of generative AI in revolutionizing academic practices but also caution about its ability to facilitate academic dishonesty, such as through generating test answers [25].”
From Generative AI and Academic Integrity in Higher Education: A Systematic Review and Research Agenda (2025) · cites this paper as [25]
In the citing paper
“However, concerns have been raised about ethical consideration and decreased reliability of the existing examinations.”
From Developing Medical Education Curriculum Reform Strategies to Address the Impact of Generative AI: Qualitative Study (2023) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“On the other hand, the impact of GAI on education is disputed [6], with studies raising concerns about the ethical considerations of ChatGPT [7], evaluation practices [8], scientific integrity [9], and potential negative effects on students’ higher order thinking skills [10].”
From Developing Medical Education Curriculum Reform Strategies to Address the Impact of Generative AI: Qualitative Study (2023) · cites this paper as [8]
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Tram, N. H. M., & Tran–Thanh, V. (2024) · Studies in computational intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-63447-5_4 · Cited by 9
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Venter, I. M., Cranfield, D. J., Blignaut, R. J., Achi, S. E., & Tick, A. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Engineering Systems (INES) · doi:10.1109/ines63318.2024.10629104 · Cited by 9
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Influence of LLMs on Learning and Teaching in Higher EducationPreprint
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Evaluating the Efficacy of Large Language Models for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis ScreeningPreprint
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Motivations and Affordances of ChatGPT Usage for College Students’ Learning
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Spennemann, D. H. R. (2023) · Publications · doi:10.3390/publications11030045 · Cited by 17
“…[13] or an appendix [37] 3. articles that quote extracts of the conversation in the text but do not provide access to the full text [15,22,23,25,29,31,38,39] 4. articles that discuss non-quote specific conversation(s) and do not provide access to the full text [30]; and 5. articles that discuss…”
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CHATGPT: ATTITUDES AND EXPERIENCES OF TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN UKRAINE
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Does ChatGPT generate fake results? Challenges in retrieving content through ChatGPT
Safdar, M., Siddique, N., Gulzar, A., Yasin, H., & Khan, M. A. (2024) · Digital Library Perspectives · doi:10.1108/dlp-01-2024-0006 · Cited by 10
A Scoping Review on the Educational Applications of Generative AI in Primary and Secondary Education
Ahn, S., Lee, J., Park, J., Jung, S., & Song, J. (2024) · The Journal of Korean Association of Computer Education · doi:10.32431/kace.2024.27.6.002 · Cited by 8
Hadar‐Shoval, D., Lvovsky, M., Asraf, K., Shimoni, Y., & Elyoseph, Z. (2025) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/68347 · Cited by 7
“5, a generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) product based on a large language model (LLM) trained on abundant text data and capable of generating human-like responses to text-based inputs [13].”
AI in higher education: tapping educators’ perspective
Krishnamoorthy, R., Srivastava, M., & Khanna, D. (2025) · International Journal of Systems Assurance Engineering and Management · doi:10.1007/s13198-024-02657-5 · Cited by 10
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The impact of guilt on student interactions with generative AI technology
Jo, H. (2025) · Ethics & Behavior · doi:10.1080/10508422.2025.2466152 · Cited by 8
“College students began to actively use ChatGPT to perform assignments or prepare for exams (Dowling & Lucey, 2023; Rudolph, 2023).”
Yu-bin, X., Liu, L., Xiong, J., & Zhu, G. (2025) · Journal of Baltic Science Education · doi:10.33225/jbse/25.24.187 · Cited by 10
Using Generative Artificial Intelligence When Writing Letters of Recommendation
Coraor, J., Johnson, N. R., Pelletier, A. J., Landman, A., & Bartz, D. (2025) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0000000000006047 · Cited by 8
Gutierrez, S., Hou, I., Lee, J., Angelikas, K., Man, O., Mettille, S., Prather, J. E., Denny, P. C., & MacNeil, S. (2025) · Australasian Computing Education Conference · doi:10.1145/3716640.3716654 · Cited by 15
“To deter unsanctioned use of AI among students, researchers have proposed solutions such as human-proctored exams [36, 52, 57, 63, 69] and visual-based questions that challenge the text-only modalities of LLMs [15, 22, 50].”
AI versus tradition: shaping the future of higher education
Venter, I. M., Blignaut, R. J., Cranfield, D. J., Tick, A., & Achi, S. E. (2025) · Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education · doi:10.1108/jarhe-12-2024-0702 · Cited by 12
Licht, K. D. F. (2025) · Journal of Applied Philosophy · doi:10.1111/japp.70026 · Cited by 7
Improving biology learning in high school with ChatGPT: A case study in Morocco
Baroud, S., Alaoui, M. E., Janati‐Idrissi, R., Boucetta, N., Ghariz, G., & Seghir, H. (2025) · Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.29333/ejmste/16606 · Cited by 10
Saeedi, Z., & Soltani, M. D. (2025) · Computer Assisted Language Learning · doi:10.1080/09588221.2025.2532014 · Cited by 7
Learners’ Acceptance of ChatGPT in School
Conrad, M., & Nuebel, H. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15070904 · Cited by 7
Li, C. L., Solhi, M., & Wang, Y. (2025) · European Journal of Education · doi:10.1111/ejed.70289 · Cited by 12
The AI Annotator: Large Language Models’ Potential in Scoring Sustainability Reports
Wu, Y., Hu, P., & Wang, D. D. (2025) · Systems · doi:10.3390/systems13100899 · Cited by 11
“The core technology behind LLMs is based on neural network-based deep learning models, which learn and generate natural language through pre-training and fine-tuning [18].”
Taani, O., Alarabi, K., Tairab, H. H., Khurma, O. A., & AlSadrani, B. (2025) · Contemporary Educational Technology · doi:10.30935/cedtech/17315 · Cited by 9
Charting new territories: Artificial Intelligence in the context of teacher education
Carrillo, C., & Flores, M. A. (2025) · European Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/02619768.2025.2586365 · Cited by 8
Mapping the Generative AI Research in Higher Education: 2022–2024 Insights
Froumin, I. D., Павлович, В. А., Алексеевна, К. М., Platonova, D., & Terentev, E. (2025) · Higher Education Quarterly · doi:10.1111/hequ.70075 · Cited by 14
Borzanović, A., Simić, A., Papić-Blagojević, N., Klašnja-Milićević, A., Sanín, C., Levula, A. V., Islam, M. R., & Ivanović, M. D. (2026) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-026-13964-8 · Cited by 10
“Recent survey-based research indicates that students frequently prioritise pragmatic benefits such as speed, accessibility, and convenience when deciding whether to use GAI tools in their studies (Davis et al., 2025; Rudolph et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2025).”
Wu, J. (2023) · Journal of Social Science Humanities and Literature · doi:10.53469/jsshl.2023.06(05).08 · Cited by 7
Stošić, L. V., & Janković, A. V. (2023) · Pravo - teorija i praksa · doi:10.5937/ptp2304058s · Cited by 7
ChatGPT in the Classroom: A Comprehensive Review of the Impact of ChatGPT on Modern Education
Patel, R., Bajaj, P., Kumar, A., Kumari, A., Rai, V., & Kumar, S. (2023) · International Conference on Intelligent Systems and Embedded Design (ISED) · doi:10.1109/ised59382.2023.10444568 · Cited by 13
“Artificial intelligence (AI) in education has brought about disruptive effects that have redefined traditional learning paradigms[1].”
BackgroundWhat Is the Impact of ChatGPT on Education?
NAGAR, L. (2024) · INTERANTIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT · doi:10.55041/ijsrem32175 · Cited by 7
Kim, H. K., Roknaldin, A., Nayak, S., Zhang, X., Twyman, M. D., Hwang, A. H., & Lu, S. C.-Y. (2024) · ASEE Pacific Southwest Section Conference (PSW) · doi:10.18260/1-2--46032 · Cited by 8
Using ChatGPT for the Development of Critical Thinking in Youth: Example of Inequality Proof
Drushlyak, M., Lukashova, T., Sabadosh, Y., Melnikov, I., & Semenikhina, O. (2024) · International Convention on Information and Communication Technology, Electronics and Microelectronics · doi:10.1109/mipro60963.2024.10569759 · Cited by 9
“Scholars perceive the potentially negative impact of AI on assessment methods [4], scientific integrity [5; 6], and the development of higher-order thinking skills [7].”
BackgroundSoftware Development and Education: Transitioning Towards AI Enhanced Teaching
Israilidis, J., Chen, W., & Tsakalerou, M. (2024) · IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON) · doi:10.1109/educon60312.2024.10578564 · Cited by 7
“Scholars looking at the context of education seem to suggest that AI has the ability to generate human-like and coherent text, allowing it to provide customized suggestions based on individual learning needs [16].”
BackgroundExploring Student and AI Generated Texts: Reflections on Reflection Texts
Lindqvist, M. H., & Arvidsson, C. (2024) · The Electronic Journal of e-Learning · doi:10.34190/ejel.22.6.3473 · Cited by 7
“Policies and easy-to-understand guidelines for the use of language models in learning and teaching have been put in the forefront in order to support proper use of these tools and to limit the consequences for cheating (Rudolph, Tan & Tan, 2023).”
BackgroundPandey, H. L., Bhusal, P. C., & Niraula, S. (2024) · Computers & composition/Computers and composition · doi:10.1016/j.compcom.2024.102892 · Cited by 12
Salinas-Navarro, D. E., Vilalta-perdomo, E. L., & Michel‐Villarreal, R. (2024) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su162411244 · Cited by 15
Unveiling the Role of GPT‐4 in Solving LeetCode Programming Problems
Vishnu, S., Sahil, & Garg, N. (2025) · Computer Applications in Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/cae.22815 · Cited by 12
“Yet a considerable debate has been sparked regarding the applicability and consequences of ChatGPT for engineering education and a variety of related issues [26].”
Sain, Z. H., & Kurniati, V. S. D. (2023) · TAMANSISWA INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL IN EDUCATION AND SCIENCE · doi:10.30738/tijes.v5i1.16274 · Cited by 11
Large Fourth-Generation Language Models as a New Tool in Scientific Research
Bragin, A. (2023) · Artificial Societies · doi:10.18254/s207751800025046-9 · Cited by 7
Shift Toward Value-Based Learning: Applying Agile Approaches in Higher Education
Schön, E.-M., Buchem, I., Sostak, S., & Rauschenberger, M. (2023) · Lecture notes in business information processing · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-43088-6_2 · Cited by 7
Darman, R. (2024) · Tunas Agraria · doi:10.31292/jta.v7i1.256 · Cited by 33
Early ChatGPT User Portrait through the Lens of Data
Deng, Y., Zhao, N., & Huang, X. S. (2023) · IEEE International Conference on Big Data (BigData) · doi:10.1109/bigdata59044.2023.10386415 · Cited by 9
“In the first theme, researchers have assessed the use of ChatGPT in various fields, including medical care( [3], [4], [5]), education( [6], [7] [8]), reasoning [9], software development [10], translation [11], and scientific research( [12], [13]), and highlighted the feasibility of using ChatGPT in…”
BackgroundEducational Potential of ChatGPT: Teaching Tool for Students’ Competencies Development
Shabunina, V., Sarancha, V., Maslak, V., Shevchenko, O., & Tur, O. (2023) · 2023 IEEE 5th International Conference on Modern Electrical and Energy System (MEES) · doi:10.1109/mees61502.2023.10402380 · Cited by 7
“J. Rudolph et al. critically analysed ChatGPT and its potential influence on traditional assessment methods in higher education [17].”
BackgroundMicroelectronic Technology, AI and Academic Dishonesty: An Agile Engineering Approach
Procko, T., Ochoa, O., & Frederick, C. M. (2024) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--43642 · Cited by 7
Utilization of Artificial Intelligence in Education: A Perspective on Learning Strategies
Yalçınalp, S., Türkoğlu, H., Koç, S. E., & Ersoy, H. (2024) · Artificial intelligence · doi:10.5772/intechopen.1005086 · Cited by 12
ChatGPT as an item calibration tool: Psychometric insights in a high-stakes examination
Pereira, D. S. M., Ribeiro‐Mourão, F., Ribeiro, J. C., Costa, P., Guimarães, S., & Pêgo, J. M. (2024) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/0142159x.2024.2376205 · Cited by 11
“This cutting-edge LLM gained one million users within five days, owing to its versatility across natural language tasks [3,5].”
ChatGPT-Aided Education Teaching
Wang, B., Li, S. W., Dong, Y., & Zhang, H. (2024) · International Conference on Computer Science and Technologies in Education (CSTE) · doi:10.1109/cste62025.2024.00033 · Cited by 7
Early research trends on ChatGPT: a review based on Altmetrics and science mapping analysisPreprint
Raghu Raman, R., Lathabai, H. H., Diwakar, S., & Nedungadi, P. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2768211/v1 · Cited by 7
ChatGPT Is More Likely to Be Perceived as Male Than FemalePreprint
Wong, J., & Kim, J. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/z8abp · Cited by 7
Pathak, A. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4499278 · Cited by 8
Commentary: Future thoughts on ChatGPT and its applications in education
Hasnain, M. (2023) · Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning · doi:10.1108/jrit-09-2023-100 · Cited by 7
(2025) · Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching · doi:10.37074/jalt.2025.8.1.20 · Cited by 7
ChatGPT in pharmacy practice: disruptive or destructive innovation? A scoping review
Lima, T. D. M., Bonafé, M., Baby, A. R., & Visacri, M. B. (2024) · Scientia Pharmaceutica · doi:10.3390/scipharm92040058 · Cited by 6
Al-Khiami, M. I., & Jaeger, M. (2023) · doi:10.20944/preprints202307.0660.v1 · Cited by 6
Köçeri, K., & KIRKKILIÇ, H. A. (2024) · Mersin Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi · doi:10.17860/mersinefd.1504250 · Cited by 6
Altamimi, A. (2024) · Discover Sustainability · doi:10.1007/s43621-024-00774-6 · Cited by 9
Charming or chilling? A comprehensive review of ChatGPT’s in education sector
Bhaskar, P., & Tiwari, C. (2025) · The international journal of information and learning technology · doi:10.1108/ijilt-05-2024-0097 · Cited by 5
Can an AI Partner Empower Learners to Ask Critical Questions?
Maiti, P., & Goel, A. K. (2025) · ACM International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces (IUI) · doi:10.1145/3708359.3712134 · Cited by 9
Segal, M. (2025) · Journal of Social Work Practice · doi:10.1080/02650533.2025.2480092 · Cited by 6
In the wake of ChatGPT: early reflections on marking open-book online accounting assessments
Dosumu, O. E., Porumb, V., Stafford, A., & Zimmer, A. (2025) · Accounting Education · doi:10.1080/09639284.2025.2487487 · Cited by 15
“Also, ChatGPT supports independent learning by allowing students to learn without direct supervision and instruction from academics (Rudolph et al., 2023; Wood et al., 2023).”
van Wyk, M. M. (2025) · Open Praxis · doi:10.55982/openpraxis.17.1.711 · Cited by 8
Metadata
- Authors
- Rudolph, J., Tan, S., & Tan, S.
- Venue
- Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching
- Publisher
- Open Access Publishing Association
- Published
- 2023-01-25
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 1
- ISSN
- 2591-801X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4317910584
- Semantic Scholar
- 9460f9fbc532416c8ec39591577032a5fa4a79b3
- Cited by
- 1,806
- References
- 84
- Citations by year
- 2026: 258 · 2025: 481 · 2024: 648 · 2023: 418
- FWCI
- 424.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Artificial Intelligence in Education
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Health Informatics › Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education
- Social Sciences › Education › Academic integrity and plagiarism
- Keywords
- ChatGPT, generative AI, student assessment, higher education, AI chatbots, artificial intelligence in education, OpenAI, future of teaching and learning, academic integrity
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