The DOI matches its Crossref record; 84 of the 84 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
ChatGPT: Bullshit spewer or the end of traditional assessments in higher education?
Open accessAbstract
ChatGPT is the world’s most advanced chatbot thus far. Unlike other chatbots, it can create impressive prose within seconds, and it has created much hype and doomsday predictions when it comes to student assessment in higher education and a host of other matters. ChatGPT is a state-of-the-art language model (a variant of OpenAI’s Generative Pretrained Transformer (GPT) language model) designed to generate text that can be indistinguishable from text written by humans. It can engage in conversation with users in a seemingly natural and intuitive way. In this article, we briefly tell the story of OpenAI, the organisation behind ChatGPT. We highlight the fundamental change from a not-for-profit organisation to a commercial business model. In terms of our methods, we conducted an extensive literature review and experimented with this artificial intelligence (AI) software. Our literature review shows our review to be amongst the first peer-reviewed academic journal articles to explore ChatGPT and its relevance for higher education (especially assessment, learning and teaching). After a description of ChatGPT’s functionality and a summary of its strengths and limitations, we focus on the technology’s implications for higher education and discuss what is the future of learning, teaching and assessment in higher education in the context of AI chatbots such as ChatGPT. We position ChatGPT in the context of current Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIEd) research, discuss student-facing, teacher-facing and system-facing applications, and analyse opportunities and threats. We conclude the article with recommendations for students, teachers and higher education institutions. Many of them focus on assessment.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The advent of GenAI has unveiled a plethora of threats to higher education and the broader societal fabric, encompassing concerns over authorship, copyright infringement, and the potential for misuse in activities such as spamming, disseminating fake news, creating malware, and hacking (Marcus, 2023;Rudolph et al., 2023aRudolph et al., , 2023b)).”
From Higher Education's Generative Artificial Intelligence Paradox: The Meaning of Chatbot Mania (2024) · cites this paper as Rudolph et al., 2023a
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“It is considered by many as the most powerful AI tool ever crated [9].”
From New Era of Artificial Intelligence in Education: Towards a Sustainable Multifaceted Revolution (2023) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“While AI technology offers promising ability for personalized learning experiences, efficient assessment, and adaptive feedback, it also presents novel challenges to the dynamics of the traditional educational bond [9].”
From New Era of Artificial Intelligence in Education: Towards a Sustainable Multifaceted Revolution (2023) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The diverse learning trajectories observed in these cases illustrate how AI tools can facilitate non-linear, adaptive learning processes by enabling students to dynamically integrate new information with prior knowledge and external resources [15, 16].”
From Scaffolding Creativity: Integrating Generative AI Tools and Real-World Experiences in Business Education (2025) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“It is more student-friendly and can provide more need-based assistance than other AWE tools, as suggested by Guo et al. (2022) and Rudolph et al. (2023).”
From Impact of ChatGPT on ESL students’ academic writing skills: a mixed methods intervention study (2024) · cites this paper as Rudolph et al. (2023)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“On the other hand, the promotion of learner autonomy and peer collaboration are similar to findings in the AWE literature (Dai et al., 2023;Rudolph et al., 2023).”
From Impact of ChatGPT on ESL students’ academic writing skills: a mixed methods intervention study (2024) · cites this paper as Rudolph et al., 2023
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“GPT-3's training on a vast corpus of 45 terabytes of text, sourced from a variety of internet-based entities like Common Crawl and Wikipedia, set a precedent for the scale of data utilised in AI development (Brown et al., 2020;Rudolph et al., 2023a).”
From Higher Education's Generative Artificial Intelligence Paradox: The Meaning of Chatbot Mania (2024) · cites this paper as Rudolph et al., 2023a
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“They highlight the transformative potential of generative AI in revolutionizing academic practices but also caution about its ability to facilitate academic dishonesty, such as through generating test answers [25].”
From Generative AI and Academic Integrity in Higher Education: A Systematic Review and Research Agenda (2025) · cites this paper as [25]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“They highlight the transformative potential of generative AI in revolutionizing academic practices but also caution about its ability to facilitate academic dishonesty, such as through generating test answers [25].”
From Generative AI and Academic Integrity in Higher Education: A Systematic Review and Research Agenda (2025) · cites this paper as [25]
In the citing paper
“However, concerns have been raised about ethical consideration and decreased reliability of the existing examinations.”
From Developing Medical Education Curriculum Reform Strategies to Address the Impact of Generative AI: Qualitative Study (2023) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“On the other hand, the impact of GAI on education is disputed [6], with studies raising concerns about the ethical considerations of ChatGPT [7], evaluation practices [8], scientific integrity [9], and potential negative effects on students’ higher order thinking skills [10].”
From Developing Medical Education Curriculum Reform Strategies to Address the Impact of Generative AI: Qualitative Study (2023) · cites this paper as [8]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Language Models are Few-Shot Learners
Brown, T. B., Mann, B., Ryder, N., Subbiah, M., Kaplan, J., Dhariwal, P., Neelakantan, A., Shyam, P., Sastry, G., Askell, A., et al. (2020) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2005.14165 · Cited by 23,372
Searle, J. R. (1980) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00005756 · Cited by 6,954
Teaching for quality learning at university
Boulton‐Lewis, G. M. (2008) · Faculty of Education · Cited by 4,926
Kung, T. H., Cheatham, M., ChatGPT, Medenilla, A., Sillos, C., De Leon, L., Elepaño, C., Madriaga, M., Aggabao, R., Diaz-Candido, G., et al. (2022) · doi:10.1101/2022.12.19.22283643 · Cited by 4,115
Kung, T. H., Cheatham, M., Medenilla, A., Sillos, C., De Leon, L., Elepaño, C., Madriaga, M., Aggabao, R., Diaz-Candido, G., Maningo, J., et al. (2023) · PLOS Digital Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pdig.0000198 · Cited by 4,115
GPT-3: Its Nature, Scope, Limits, and Consequences
Floridi, L., & Chiriatti, M. (2020) · Minds and Machines · doi:10.1007/s11023-020-09548-1 · Cited by 2,519
Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies
Robert, C. (2017) · CHANCE · doi:10.1080/09332480.2017.1302723 · Cited by 1,756
What is assessment for learning
Wiliam, D. (2011) · Studies in Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2011.03.001 · Cited by 1,282
Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow
Harari, Y. N. (2015) · Cited by 1,267
Gao, C. A., Howard, F. M., Markov, N. S., Dyer, E. C., Ramesh, S., Luo, Y., & Pearson, A. T. (2022) · doi:10.1101/2022.12.23.521610 · Cited by 1,099
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 16
- [11]11. Aydın (Ed.), Emerging computer technologies 2 (pp. 22-31). İzmir Akademi Dernegi.
- [15]15. Bender, E. M., Gebru, T., McMillan-Major, A., & Shmitchell, S. (2021, March). On the dangers of stochastic parrots: Can language models be too big? In Proceedings of the 2021 ACM conference on fairness, accountability, and transparency (pp. 610-623).
- [30]30. Cotton, D. R., Cotton, P. A., & Shipway, J. R. (2023, January 10). Chatting and cheating. Ensuring academic integrity in the era of ChatGPT. Preprint. https://doi.org/10.35542/osf. io/mrz8h D'Agostino, S. (2022, October 26). Machines can craft essays. How should writing be taught now? Inside Higher Ed, https:// www.insidehighered.com/news/2022/10/26/machines-can- craft-essays-how-should-writing-be-taught-now · DOI
- [45]45. Gilson, A., Safranek, C., Huang, T., Socrates, V., Chi, L., Taylor, R. A., & Chartash, D. (2022). How well does ChatGPT do when taking the medical licensing exams? The Implications of large language models for medical education and knowledge assessment. Preprint. medRxiv.
- [59]59. Heyward, E. (2022, May 16). Using AI to write essays isn't cheating, student says. Canta, (5), pp. 6-7. https://www. canta.co.nz/newsarticle/115524?newsfeedId=1453013
- [60]60. hooks, b. (2010). Teaching critical thinking. Routledge.
- [61]61. Huh, S. (2023). Are ChatGPT's knowledge and interpretation ability comparable to those of medical students in Korea for taking a parasitology examination?: A descriptive study. Journal of Educational Evaluation for Health Professions, 20(1), https://doi.org/10.3352/jeehp.2023 · DOI
- [62]62. Jiao, W., Wang, W., Huang, J., Wang, X., & Tu, Z. (2023, January 3). Is ChatGPT a good translator? A preliminary study. Preprint. https://wxjiao.github.io/downloads/tech_ chatgpt_arxiv.pdf
- [77]77. Kurzweil, R. (2005). The singularity is near. Viking Penguin.
- [79]79. Lim, V. F. (2022, December 16). ChatGPT raises uncomfortable questions about teaching and classroom learning. The Straits Times, https://www.straitstimes.com/opinion/need- to-review-literacy-assessment-in-the-age-of-chatgpt Liquid Ocelot (2023, January 2). ChatGPT-4, the newest and most advanced AI system, might prompt a major shift in the way we communicate. Medium, https://medium.com/ inkwater-atlas/chatgpt-4-the-newest-and-most-advanced- ai-system-might-prompt-a-major-shift-in-the-way-we- fd764f97212c
- [103]103. Nisar, S., & Aslam, M. S. (2023, January 14). Is ChatGPT a good tool for T&CM students in studying pharmacology? Preprint. https://ssrn.com/abstract=4324310
- [105]105. O'Connor, S. & ChatGPT (2023). Open artificial intelligence platforms in nursing education: tools for academic progress or abuse? Nurse Education in Practice, 66, 103537. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.nepr.2022.1 · DOI
- [109]109. Parker, M., Rudolph, J., Shukaitis, S., & Tan, S. (2021). Strategic utopianism and the avoidance of dualisms: An interview with Martin Parker. Journal of Applied Learning and Teaching, 4(Sp. Iss. 1), 60-73. https://doi.org/10.37074/jalt.2021.4.s1. · DOI
- [115]115. Radford, A., Narasimhan, K., Salimans, T., & Sutskever, I. (2018). Improving language understanding by generative pre- training. Preprint. https://cdn.openai.com/research-covers/ language-unsupervised/language_understanding_paper. pdf
- [120]120. M.Ed. dissertation, University of Adelaide].
- [162]162. Zawacki-Richter, O., Marín, V. I., Bond, M., & Gouverneur, F. (2019). Systematic review of research on artificial intelligence
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 201–300 of 1,031
Meron, Y., & Araci, Y. T. (2023) · Design Science · doi:10.1017/dsj.2023.28 · Cited by 87
Kayalı, B., Yavuz, M., Balat, Ş., & Çalışan, M. (2023) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.8915 · Cited by 110
“This situation is emphasised to promote self-regulation (Chiu et al., 2023) and facilitate learning by increasing participation (Karsenti, 2019; Rudolph et al., 2023; Šlapeta, 2023).”
BackgroundThe Benefits, Risks and Regulation of Using ChatGPT in Chinese Academia: A Content Analysis
Hung, J., & Chen, J. (2023) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci12070380 · Cited by 93
Oc, Y., Gonsalves, C., & Quamina, L. T. (2024) · Journal of Marketing Education · doi:10.1177/02734753241302459 · Cited by 99
ChatGPT: Systematic Review, Applications, and Agenda for Multidisciplinary Research
Singh, H., & Singh, A. (2023) · Journal of Chinese Economic and Business Studies · doi:10.1080/14765284.2023.2210482 · Cited by 82
“Thirdly, ChatGPT ability to generate human-like responses raises the risk of impersonation and identity theft (Rudolph and Tan 2023).”
BackgroundExploring ChatGPT and its impact on society
Haque, M. A., & Li, S. (2024) · AI and Ethics · doi:10.1007/s43681-024-00435-4 · Cited by 101
“In subjects that involve interpersonal communication and human interaction, such as psychology and counseling, an overemphasis on AI-generated conversations might lead to a lack of empathy and understanding.”
BackgroundAn, S., Zhang, S., Guo, T., Lu, S., Zhang, W., & Cai, Z. (2024) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105227 · Cited by 73
ChatGPT's influence on customer experience in digital marketing: Investigating the moderating roles
Abdelkader, O. A. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18770 · Cited by 103
“As the usage of internet platforms and technology expands, digital marketing has become an increasingly significant component of modern corporate transactions [1].”
BackgroundGhiasvand, F., & Seyri, H. (2025) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2025.105022 · Cited by 93
Tseng, L.-P., Huang, L.-P., & Chen, W.-R. (2025) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2025.106570 · Cited by 75
Annamalai, N., Bervell, B., Mireku, D. O., & Andoh, R. P. K. (2024) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100346 · Cited by 111
Nelson, A. S., Santamaría, P. V., Javens, J. S., & Ricaurte, M. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15050611 · Cited by 79
Can ChatGPT Pass High School Exams on English Language Comprehension?
de Winter, J. C. F. (2024) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-023-00372-z · Cited by 115
Lin, M. P.-C., & Chang, D. (2023) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100167 · Cited by 69
Samuel, Y., Brennan‐Tonetta, M., Samuel, J., Kashyap, R. K., Kumar, V., Kaashyap, S. K., Chidipothu, N., Anand, I., & Jain, P. H. (2023) · Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.3389/frai.2023.1198180 · Cited by 91
“AI has escaped the confines of expert discussions, labs, devices, and technology applications and to emerge as a driver of mainstream societal progress in various domains such as education, healthcare and finance (King, 2022; Dowling and Lucey, 2023; Rudolph et al., 2023).”
BackgroundExploring ChatGPT as a writing assessment tool
Bucol, J. L., & Sangkawong, N. (2024) · Innovations in Education and Teaching International · doi:10.1080/14703297.2024.2363901 · Cited by 79
Rezai, A., Namaziandost, E., & Hwang, G. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2024.100510 · Cited by 98
Tran, T. T. T. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15020232 · Cited by 68
“Among its functions, Gemini provides real-time feedback on language tasks, including creative writing support, grammar and stylistic corrections, and assistance with complex summarization and rephrasing (Rudolph et al., 2023).”
Jiang, Y., Hao, J., Fauss, M., & Li, C. (2024) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105070 · Cited by 68
A Review on the Use of Large Language Models as Virtual Tutors
García-Méndez, S., de Arriba-Pérez, F., & Somoza-López, M. D. C. (2024) · Science & Education · doi:10.1007/s11191-024-00530-2 · Cited by 95
“Specifically, they enable automatic answer grading (Ahmed et al., 2022), explanation generation (Humphry & Fuller, 2023), question generation (Bhat et al., 2022), and problem resolution (Zong & Krishnamachari, 2022).”
Gupta, P., Mahajan, R., Badhera, U., & Kushwaha, P. S. (2024) · The International Journal of Management Education · doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2024.101017 · Cited by 80
Zare, J., Ranjbaran, F., & Derakhshan, A. (2025) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/amaf045 · Cited by 78
ChatGPT in society: emerging issues
Farina, M., & Lavazza, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.3389/frai.2023.1130913 · Cited by 82
“…politically oriented comments may generate the appearance of majorities on certain issues that do not actually exist or may contribute to form a political climate of a certain kind, even if that climate has no genuine opinion movement at its origin (Lavazza and Farina, 2021; Rudolph et al., 2023).”
BackgroundChatGPT’s Response Consistency: A Study on Repeated Queries of Medical Examination Questions
Funk, P. F., Hoch, C. C., Knoedler, S., Knoedler, L., Cotofana, S., Sofo, G., Bashiri Dezfouli, A., Wollenberg, B., Guntinas-Lichius, O., & Alfertshofer, M. (2024) · European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe14030043 · Cited by 69
“These include increased accuracy, a reduced tendency to generate implausible or irrelevant information, and a boost in the confidence levels of its responses, as our study effectively illustrates [26–29].”
ResultApplication of ChatGPT in Higher Education and Research – A Futuristic Analysis
Aithal, P. S., & Aithal, S. (2023) · International Journal of Applied Engineering and Management Letters · doi:10.47992/ijaeml.2581.7000.0193 · Cited by 71
AI-Tutoring in Software Engineering Education
Frankford, E., Sauerwein, C., Bassner, P., Krusche, S., & Breu, R. (2024) · IEEE/ACM International Conference on Software Engineering: Software Engineering Education and Training (ICSE-SEET) · doi:10.1145/3639474.3640061 · Cited by 97
Acosta-Enriquez, B. G., Várgas, C. G. A. P., Jordan, O. H., Ballesteros, M. A. A., & Morales, A. E. P. (2024) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100320 · Cited by 99
Exploring the Potential of ChatGPT as an Educational Technology: An Emerging Technology Report
Glaser, N. J. (2023) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-023-09684-4 · Cited by 82
Using ChatGPT in Education: Human Reflection on ChatGPT’s Self-Reflection
Loos, E. F., Gröpler, J., & Goudeau, M.-L. S. (2023) · Societies · doi:10.3390/soc13080196 · Cited by 88
Adarkwah, M. A., Amponsah, S., van Wyk, M. M., Huang, R., Tlili, A., Shehata, B., Metwally, A. H. S., & Wang, H. (2023) · Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching · doi:10.37074/jalt.2023.6.2.26 · Cited by 85
Exploring student and teacher perceptions of ChatGPT use in higher education: A Q-Methodology study
Espartinez, A. S. (2024) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100264 · Cited by 116
Beyond Traditional Assessment: Exploring the Impact of Large Language Models on Grading Practices
Fagbohun, O., Iduwe, N. P., Abdullahi, M., Ifaturoti, A., & Nwanna, M. (2024) · Journal of Artificial Intelligence Machine Learning and Data Science · doi:10.51219/jaimld/oluwole-fagbohun/19 · Cited by 80
“According to studies by 44 and Rodriguez, et al. 1 , BERT has been successfully used to evaluate essays and short answers, showcasing the potential of transformer-based models in comprehending, and analyzing intricate textual content.”
InfluentialWang, C., Chen, X., Hu, Z., Jin, S., & Gu, X. (2025) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.13117 · Cited by 73
Youssef, E., Medhat, M., Abdellatif, S., & Al Malek, M. (2024) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100316 · Cited by 65
Mamo, Y., Crompton, H., Burke, D., & Nickel, C. (2024) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/s11528-024-00954-1 · Cited by 65
“…other studies where faculty suggest that the use of AI signifies the decline of critical writing skills and critical thinking (Amani et al., 2023) and that depth, assessment of credibility, and reasoning are current weaknesses of ChatGPT (Borji, 2023; Farrokhnia et al., 2023; Rudolph et al., 2023).”
Marengo, A., Pagano, A., Pange, J., & Soomro, K. A. (2024) · Interactive Technology and Smart Education · doi:10.1108/itse-11-2023-0218 · Cited by 91
Seeing ChatGPT Through Students’ Eyes: An Analysis of TikTok Data
Haensch, A., Ball, S. L., Herklotz, M., & Kreuter, F. (2023) · 2023 Big Data Meets Survey Science (BigSurv) · doi:10.1109/bigsurv59479.2023.10486710 · Cited by 86
“Now that ChatGPT and similar large language models are widely available as tools, the discussion on academic integrity is also very active (Cotton et al., 2023; Khalil and Er, 2023; Rudolph et al., 2023).”
BackgroundMalik, A., Khan, M. L., & Hussain, K. (2023) · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4413516 · Cited by 59
Zaitsu, W., & Jin, M. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0288453 · Cited by 77
Fuchs, K., & Aguilos, V. (2023) · International Journal of Information and Education Technology · doi:10.18178/ijiet.2023.13.9.1939 · Cited by 61
“NLP models are rapidly becoming relevant to higher education, as they have the potential to transform teaching and learning by enabling personalized learning, on-demand support, and other innovative approaches [14, 16].”
BackgroundLiu, J., Li, S., & Dong, Q. (2024) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/07356331241242441 · Cited by 74
Hsiao, C., & Tang, K. (2024) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-13263-0 · Cited by 82
“Additionally, some researchers have indicated that students could benefit from ChatGPT by using it to receive feedback on their work and translate texts accurately (Nedungadi et al., 2024 ; Rudolph et al., 2023).”
Symeou, L., Louca, L. Τ., Kavadella, A., Mackay, J., Danidou, Y., & Raffay, V. I. (2025) · European Journal Of Dental Education · doi:10.1111/eje.13069 · Cited by 87
Cribben, I., & Zeinali, Y. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4404276 · Cited by 70
Rethinking online assessment strategies: Authenticity versus AI chatbot intervention
Ifelebuegu, A. O. (2023) · Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching · doi:10.37074/jalt.2023.6.2.2 · Cited by 74
Can Students without Prior Knowledge Use ChatGPT to Answer Test Questions? An Empirical Study
Shoufan, A. (2023) · ACM Transactions on Computing Education · doi:10.1145/3628162 · Cited by 59
“This can be achieved by implementing various strategies such as in-class assessments, presentations, and performances, allowing for student choice in topic selection, and using authentic assessment methods that reflect real-world situations, as suggested by Rudolph et al. [34].”
BackgroundInfluentialGenerative AI as source of change of knowledge management paradigm
Kaczorowska–Spychalska, D., Kotula, N., Mazurek, G., & Sułkowski, Ł. (2024) · Human Technology · doi:10.14254/1795-6889.2024.20-1.7 · Cited by 78
“It is also accused of having limited analytical and critical thinking capabilities (Rudolph et al., 2023).”
BackgroundThe Good and Bad of AI Tools in Novice Programming Education
Zviel-Girshin, R. (2024) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci14101089 · Cited by 55
Lin, C.-H., Zhou, K., Li, L., & Sun, L. (2025) · Computers and Composition · doi:10.1016/j.compcom.2024.102895 · Cited by 57
Shen, Y., & Guo, H. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2024.108429 · Cited by 57
Smith, A., Hachen, S., Schleifer, R., Bhugra, D., Buadze, A., & Liebrenz, M. (2023) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00207640231178451 · Cited by 57
“ChatGPT does not have the same strengths in every language, which may engender a lack of structure and grammatical errors (Rudolph et al., 2023).”
BackgroundLozano, A., & Blanco Fontao, C. (2023) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci13070733 · Cited by 60
The plasticity of ChatGPT’s mentalizing abilities: personalization for personality structures
Hadar‐Shoval, D., Elyoseph, Z., & Lvovsky, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1234397 · Cited by 54
“Schizoid Personality Disorder (SPD) includes several typical symptoms (21): (1) A preference for solitude and a proclivity to engage in activities that are solitary in nature; (2) A lack of interest in or enjoyment of close interpersonal relationships; (3) Minimal or nonexistent sexual desire; (4) Perception of an ina…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialChatgpt in and for second language acquisition: A call for systematic research
Han, Z. (2024) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263124000111 · Cited by 57
“In addition, for strand 1, it may be instructive to consider the machine learning mechanisms underlying ChatGPT, such as supervised and reinforcement learning (Hong, 2023; Rudolph et al., 2023), and other A.I. applications to the learning sciences.”
BackgroundGenerative artificial intelligence and ELT
Moorhouse, B. L. (2024) · ELT Journal · doi:10.1093/elt/ccae032 · Cited by 57
Aye, AI! ChatGPT passes multiple-choice family medicine exam
Morreel, S., Mathysen, D., & Verhoeven, V. (2023) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/0142159x.2023.2187684 · Cited by 56
Exploring ChatGPT’s impact on post-secondary education: A qualitative study
Rajabi, P., Taghipour, P., Cukierman, D., & Doleck, T. (2023) · Proceedings of the 25th Western Canadian Conference on Computing Education · doi:10.1145/3593342.3593360 · Cited by 57
“recommend educators to avoid assessments that are "so formulaic that nobody could tell if a computer completed them" and shift towards peer evaluations and teach-back techniques to measure students’ learning [24].”
BackgroundChatGPT for Teaching and Learning: An Experience from Data Science Education
Zheng, Y. (2023) · Conference on Information Technology Education · doi:10.1145/3585059.3611431 · Cited by 75
“Chat-GPT is much more powerful for assisting writing, not only for children or junior students, but also for essay and paper writing by graduate students [2, 10], e.g., paper proofreading, grammar check, sentence rephrasing, paper editing, etc. • Support for Group Learning and Collaborations [10, 17].”
BackgroundChatGPT, a brand-new tool to strengthen timeless competencies
Michalon, B., & Camacho-Zúñiga, C. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1251163 · Cited by 70
Hussain, K., Khan, M. L., & Malik, A. N. (2023) · Digital Business · doi:10.1016/j.digbus.2023.100071 · Cited by 74
“OpenAI is credited with creating ChatGPT, which is recognized for its remarkable ability to generate responses that closely resemble human communication (Rudolph et al., 2023).”
BackgroundChaka, C. (2024) · Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching · doi:10.37074/jalt.2024.7.1.14 · Cited by 85
Slamet, J. (2024) · Discover Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1007/s44163-024-00143-2 · Cited by 57
“ChatGPT’s capacity to give rapid feedback and engage students in engaging dialogues was well received by the students [18].”
InfluentialTang, Q., Deng, W., Huang, Y., Wang, S., & Zhang, H. (2025) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.70027 · Cited by 55
Durmuş Sarıkahya, S., Özbay, Ö., Torpuş, K., Usta, G., & Çınar Özbay, S. (2025) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2025.106755 · Cited by 60
Zlotnikova, I., Hlomani, H., Mokgetse, T. L., & Bagai, K. (2025) · Journal of Information Communication and Ethics in Society · doi:10.1108/jices-07-2024-0104 · Cited by 72
Here's to the future: Conversational agents in higher education- a scoping review
Pereira, D. S. M., Falcão, F., Costa, L., Lunn, B. S., Pêgo, J. M., & Costa, P. (2023) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2023.102233 · Cited by 82
Playfoot, D. R., Quigley, M., & Thomas, A. G. (2024) · The Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2024.100950 · Cited by 75
Taani, O., & Alabidi, S. (2024) · International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/0020739x.2024.2357341 · Cited by 71
“Although it offers assistance in education with impressive responses, the lack of common sense, difficulty with complex reasoning, potential bias and inability to process visual information are limitations of ChatGPT in education (Rahman & Watanobe, 2023; Rudolph et al., 2023).”
Generative AI, Why, How, and Outcomes: A User Adoption Study
Huy, L. V., Nguyen, H. P. N., Vo‐Thanh, T., Thịnh, N. H., & Dung, T. T. T. (2017) · AIS Transactions on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.17705/1thci.00098 · Cited by 106
C., S. B. G., Bhandari, P., Gurung, S. K., Srivastava, E., Ojha, D., & Dhungana, B. R. (2024) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2024.2403287 · Cited by 78
“Artificial intelligence is creating a major impact on higher education, with tools like ChatGPT (Chat Generative Pre-trained Transformer) changing how students learn, teachers teach, and even how students are assessed (Dwivedi et al., 2023; Rudolph et al., 2023).”
Stone, B. W. (2025) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1177/00986283241305398 · Cited by 54
“…fi ts, many have pointed out potential downsides of AI in higher education, including issues of academic integrity, inequity of access and use, and algorithmic biases, as well as other social and ethical implications (Capraro et al., 2024; Cotton et al., 2023; Perkins, 2023; Rudolph et al., 2023).”
Malik, A., Khan, M. L., Hussain, K., Qadir, J., & Tarhini, A. (2025) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2024.2409407 · Cited by 57
“According to the majority of studies ChatGPT is a unique, practical, and beneficial tool for students (Gilson et al., 2023; Halaweh, 2023; Kasneci et al., 2023; Rudolph et al., 2023; Zhai, 2022).”
InfluentialCowling, M., Crawford, J., Allen, K.-A., & Wehmeyer, M. (2023) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.8598 · Cited by 55
“These were not designed to be exhaustive, but rather to provide initial theoretical arguments to support scholarly research in this area (Rudolph et al., 2023), considering some argue of limited long-term viability of AI in higher education (O’Dea & O’Dea, 2023; Popenici, 2023).”
BackgroundChatGPT for research and publication: Opportunities and challenges
Xames, M. D., & Shefa, J. (2023) · Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching · doi:10.37074/jalt.2023.6.1.20 · Cited by 117
Public perceptions towards ChatGPT as the Robo-Assistant
Jangjarat, K., Kraiwanit, T., Limna, P., & Sonsuphap, R. (2023) · Online Journal of Communication and Media Technologies · doi:10.30935/ojcmt/13366 · Cited by 63
Li, B., Kou, X., & Bonk, C. (2023) · Languages · doi:10.3390/languages8030197 · Cited by 50
“Most of the current discussions about ChatGPT’s implication for education focus on the accuracy and the quality of the content it provides (Rudolph et al. 2023).”
Towards Understanding the Geospatial Skills of ChatGPT
Mooney, P., Cui, W., Guan, B., & Juhász, L. (2023) · ACM SIGSPATIAL International Workshop on AI for Geographic Knowledge Discovery (GeoAI) · doi:10.1145/3615886.3627745 · Cited by 73
“The potential impact of LLMs, ChatGPT, chatbots, AI, and so on in education permeates into every educational discipline or subject [43].”
A Social Perspective on AI in the Higher Education System: A Semisystematic Literature Review
Alshahrani, B. T., Pileggi, S. F., & Karimi, F. (2024) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics13081572 · Cited by 82
Determinants of ChatGPT adoption among students in higher education: the moderating effect of trust
Foroughi, B., Iranmanesh, M., Ghobakhloo, M., Senali, M. G., Annamalai, N., Naghmeh‐Abbaspour, B., & Rejeb, A. (2024) · The Electronic Library · doi:10.1108/el-12-2023-0293 · Cited by 53
Mapping Tomorrow’s Teaching and Learning Spaces: A Systematic Review on GenAI in Higher Education
Tillmanns, T., Filho, A. S., Rudra, S., Weber, P., Dawitz, J., Wiersma, E., Dudenaite, D., & REYNOLDS, S. L. (2025) · Trends in Higher Education · doi:10.3390/higheredu4010002 · Cited by 88
“Codes: • Allowing students to write about topics that genuinely interest them, in which their voices come through and their opinions are valued [32]; • Teaching students to think and create and not just be satisfied with the convenience of acquiring knowledge [28]; Enabling students to break out of…”
InfluentialKhademi, A. (2023) · Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching · doi:10.37074/jalt.2023.6.1.28 · Cited by 72
From ChatGPT-3 to GPT-4: A Significant Advancement in AI-Driven NLP Tools
Rahaman, M. S., Ahsan, M. M. T., Anjum, N., Terano, H. J. R., & Rahman, M. M. (2023) · Journal of Engineering and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.52631/jeet.v1i1.188 · Cited by 74
Designing a course for pre-service science teachers using ChatGPT: what ChatGPT brings to the table
Okulu, H. Z., & Muslu, N. (2024) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2024.2322462 · Cited by 61
“In contrast to previous chatbots, ChatGPT ’ s remarkable understanding and interpretation of human language enables users to ask questions and get responses in a natural and conversational manner (Rudolph et al., 2023; J. J. Zhu et al., 2023).”
Generative Artificial Intelligence, Human Agency and the Future of Cultural Heritage
Spennemann, D. H. R. (2024) · Heritage · doi:10.3390/heritage7070170 · Cited by 88
How understanding the limitations and risks of using ChatGPT can contribute to willingness to use
Murshidi, G. H. A., Shulgina, G., Kapuza, A., & Costley, J. (2024) · Smart Learning Environments · doi:10.1186/s40561-024-00322-9 · Cited by 62
“For instance, GAI’s ability to provide immediate and personalized feedback could be utilized to offer writing assistance and support to students (Geng & Razali, 2022; Ippolito et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2023a, 2023b; Rudolph et al., 2023; Su et al., 2023).”
BackgroundDoes ChatGPT Write Like a Student? Engagement Markers in Argumentative Essays
Jiang, F. (., & Hyland, K. (2025) · Written Communication · doi:10.1177/07410883251328311 · Cited by 52
“For decades, conversational agents, commonly referred to as chatbots, have been applied to support teaching of foreign languages (Ji et al., 2023; Rudolph et al., 2023).”
Foreign Language Learning Assessment in the Age of ChatGPT
Moqbel, M. S. S., & Al-kadi, A. M. T. (2023) · Journal of English Studies in Arabia Felix · doi:10.56540/jesaf.v2i1.62 · Cited by 65
An In-Depth Review of ChatGPT’s Pros and Cons for Learning and Teaching in Education
Samala, A. D., Zhaı, X., Aoki, K., Bojić, L., & Žikić, S. (2024) · International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies (iJIM) · doi:10.3991/ijim.v18i02.46509 · Cited by 89
Potential Benefits and Risks of Artificial Intelligence in Education
Özer, M. (2024) · Bartın University Journal of Faculty of Education · doi:10.14686/buefad.1416087 · Cited by 72
“In other words, teachers now have to spend a significant portion of their time enriching educational environments with new systems and focusing on reviewing students' work and providing feedback (Rudolph et al., 2023).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWaiting for the revolution: how higher education institutions initially responded to ChatGPT
Korseberg, L., & Elken, M. (2024) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-024-01256-4 · Cited by 58
“…experiences with and reflections on Chat-GPT (see e.g. Iskender, 2023; Stojanov, 2023), or they focus on the impacts of ChatGPT on academic integrity and the assessments of students (see e.g. Cotton et al., 2023; Crawford et al., 2023; Currie et al., 2023; Perkins, 2023; Rudolph et al., 2023).”
InfluentialAlmarashdi, H. S., Jarrah, A. M., Khurma, O. A., & Gningue, S. M. (2024) · Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.29333/ejmste/15739 · Cited by 81
“Moreover, Rudolph et al. (2023) cited various benefits of ChatGPT, including its ability to generate human-like discussions, its speed and efficiency, and its cost-effectiveness because no human labor is needed.”
Baltà‐Salvador, R., Madafri, I. E., Brasó‐Vives, E., & Peña, M. (2025) · Computer Applications in Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/cae.22817 · Cited by 76
ChatGPT for Research and Publication: Opportunities and ChallengesPreprint
Xames, M. D., & Shefa, J. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4381803 · Cited by 51
Hu, J.-M., Liu, F.-C., Chu, C.-M., & Chang, Y.-T. (2023) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/49385 · Cited by 50
“ChatGPT quickly gained popularity for its detailed responses and articulate answers across multiple domains of knowledge [6].”
How are AI assistants changing higher education?
Schön, E.-M., Neumann, M., Hofmann-Stölting, C., Baeza-Yates, R. A., & Rauschenberger, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Computer Science · doi:10.3389/fcomp.2023.1208550 · Cited by 68
Qazi, S., Kadri, M. B., Naveed, M., Khawaja, B. A., Khan, S. Z., Alam, M. M., & Su’ud, M. M. (2024) · Computers, materials & continua/Computers, materials & continua (Print) · doi:10.32604/cmc.2024.048893 · Cited by 77
Huang, Q., Lv, C., Li, L., & Tu, S. (2025) · Systems · doi:10.3390/systems13030174 · Cited by 79
Seyri, H., & Ghiasvand, F. (2025) · Computers and Education Open · doi:10.1016/j.caeo.2025.100264 · Cited by 66
Foung, D., Lin, L., & Chen, J. (2024) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100250 · Cited by 54
The Impact of AI Chatbot-Based Learning on Students’ Motivation in English Writing Classroom
Silitonga, L. M., Hawanti, S., Aziez, F., Furqon, M., Zain, D. S. M., Anjarani, S., & Wu, T. (2023) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-40113-8_53 · Cited by 72
Metadata
- Authors
- Rudolph, J., Tan, S., & Tan, S.
- Venue
- Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching
- Publisher
- Open Access Publishing Association
- Published
- 2023-01-25
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 1
- ISSN
- 2591-801X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4317910584
- Semantic Scholar
- 9460f9fbc532416c8ec39591577032a5fa4a79b3
- Cited by
- 1,806
- References
- 84
- Citations by year
- 2026: 258 · 2025: 481 · 2024: 648 · 2023: 418
- FWCI
- 424.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Artificial Intelligence in Education
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Health Informatics › Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education
- Social Sciences › Education › Academic integrity and plagiarism
- Keywords
- ChatGPT, generative AI, student assessment, higher education, AI chatbots, artificial intelligence in education, OpenAI, future of teaching and learning, academic integrity
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
