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ChatGPT: Bullshit spewer or the end of traditional assessments in higher education?
Open accessAbstract
ChatGPT is the world’s most advanced chatbot thus far. Unlike other chatbots, it can create impressive prose within seconds, and it has created much hype and doomsday predictions when it comes to student assessment in higher education and a host of other matters. ChatGPT is a state-of-the-art language model (a variant of OpenAI’s Generative Pretrained Transformer (GPT) language model) designed to generate text that can be indistinguishable from text written by humans. It can engage in conversation with users in a seemingly natural and intuitive way. In this article, we briefly tell the story of OpenAI, the organisation behind ChatGPT. We highlight the fundamental change from a not-for-profit organisation to a commercial business model. In terms of our methods, we conducted an extensive literature review and experimented with this artificial intelligence (AI) software. Our literature review shows our review to be amongst the first peer-reviewed academic journal articles to explore ChatGPT and its relevance for higher education (especially assessment, learning and teaching). After a description of ChatGPT’s functionality and a summary of its strengths and limitations, we focus on the technology’s implications for higher education and discuss what is the future of learning, teaching and assessment in higher education in the context of AI chatbots such as ChatGPT. We position ChatGPT in the context of current Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIEd) research, discuss student-facing, teacher-facing and system-facing applications, and analyse opportunities and threats. We conclude the article with recommendations for students, teachers and higher education institutions. Many of them focus on assessment.
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“The advent of GenAI has unveiled a plethora of threats to higher education and the broader societal fabric, encompassing concerns over authorship, copyright infringement, and the potential for misuse in activities such as spamming, disseminating fake news, creating malware, and hacking (Marcus, 2023;Rudolph et al., 2023aRudolph et al., , 2023b)).”
From Higher Education's Generative Artificial Intelligence Paradox: The Meaning of Chatbot Mania (2024) · cites this paper as Rudolph et al., 2023a
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“It is considered by many as the most powerful AI tool ever crated [9].”
From New Era of Artificial Intelligence in Education: Towards a Sustainable Multifaceted Revolution (2023) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“While AI technology offers promising ability for personalized learning experiences, efficient assessment, and adaptive feedback, it also presents novel challenges to the dynamics of the traditional educational bond [9].”
From New Era of Artificial Intelligence in Education: Towards a Sustainable Multifaceted Revolution (2023) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The diverse learning trajectories observed in these cases illustrate how AI tools can facilitate non-linear, adaptive learning processes by enabling students to dynamically integrate new information with prior knowledge and external resources [15, 16].”
From Scaffolding Creativity: Integrating Generative AI Tools and Real-World Experiences in Business Education (2025) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“It is more student-friendly and can provide more need-based assistance than other AWE tools, as suggested by Guo et al. (2022) and Rudolph et al. (2023).”
From Impact of ChatGPT on ESL students’ academic writing skills: a mixed methods intervention study (2024) · cites this paper as Rudolph et al. (2023)
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“On the other hand, the promotion of learner autonomy and peer collaboration are similar to findings in the AWE literature (Dai et al., 2023;Rudolph et al., 2023).”
From Impact of ChatGPT on ESL students’ academic writing skills: a mixed methods intervention study (2024) · cites this paper as Rudolph et al., 2023
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
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“GPT-3's training on a vast corpus of 45 terabytes of text, sourced from a variety of internet-based entities like Common Crawl and Wikipedia, set a precedent for the scale of data utilised in AI development (Brown et al., 2020;Rudolph et al., 2023a).”
From Higher Education's Generative Artificial Intelligence Paradox: The Meaning of Chatbot Mania (2024) · cites this paper as Rudolph et al., 2023a
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“They highlight the transformative potential of generative AI in revolutionizing academic practices but also caution about its ability to facilitate academic dishonesty, such as through generating test answers [25].”
From Generative AI and Academic Integrity in Higher Education: A Systematic Review and Research Agenda (2025) · cites this paper as [25]
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In the citing paper
“They highlight the transformative potential of generative AI in revolutionizing academic practices but also caution about its ability to facilitate academic dishonesty, such as through generating test answers [25].”
From Generative AI and Academic Integrity in Higher Education: A Systematic Review and Research Agenda (2025) · cites this paper as [25]
In the citing paper
“However, concerns have been raised about ethical consideration and decreased reliability of the existing examinations.”
From Developing Medical Education Curriculum Reform Strategies to Address the Impact of Generative AI: Qualitative Study (2023) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“On the other hand, the impact of GAI on education is disputed [6], with studies raising concerns about the ethical considerations of ChatGPT [7], evaluation practices [8], scientific integrity [9], and potential negative effects on students’ higher order thinking skills [10].”
From Developing Medical Education Curriculum Reform Strategies to Address the Impact of Generative AI: Qualitative Study (2023) · cites this paper as [8]
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Implementing generative AI (GenAI) in higher education: A systematic review of case studies
Belkina, M., Daniel, S., Nikolic, S., Haque, R., Lyden, S., Neal, P., Grundy, S., & Hassan, G. M. (2025) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100407 · Cited by 183
Applying large language models and chain-of-thought for automatic scoring
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Bouteraa, M., Bin‐Nashwan, S. A., Al-Daihani, M., Dirie, K. A., Benlahcene, A., Sadallah, M., Zaki, H. O., Lada, S., Ansar, R., Fook, L. M., et al. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2024.100402 · Cited by 222
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Beware of botshit: How to manage the epistemic risks of generative chatbots
Hannigan, T. R., McCarthy, I. P., & Spicer, A. (2024) · Business Horizons · doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2024.03.001 · Cited by 195
A Preliminary Investigation of Fake Peer-Reviewed Citations and References Generated by ChatGPT
Day, T. (2023) · The Professional Geographer · doi:10.1080/00330124.2023.2190373 · Cited by 160
“Concerns about the impact of the technology on academic research, and on student academic integrity also quickly emerged, however (Rudolph, Tan, and Tan 2023).”
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“Even without students’ prompts, the interaction will still occur if their teachers or peers want to have a feedback dialogue with them. unlike teachers and peers, GenAI cannot clarify questions unaided (Rudolph, Tan, and Tan 2023).”
ChatGPT—A Challenging Tool for the University Professors in Their Teaching Practice
Kiryakova, G., & Angelova, N. (2023) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci13101056 · Cited by 171
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How to harness the potential of ChatGPT in education?
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“…and negative effects as well as various concerns regarding the integration of ChatGPT into education in different disciplines (Arif et al., 2023; Farrokhnia et al., 2023; Gilson et al., 2023; Lo, 2023; Mhlanga, 2023; Rospigliosi, 2023; Rudolph et al., 2023; Thurzo et al., 2023; Tlili et al., 2023).”
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“A stand-out instance is ChatGPT, the latest iteration of this transformative technology, which has been rapidly adopted by a large segment of university students across the globe (Rudolph et al., 2023).”
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“Future research could expand on these themes by investigating the long-term effects of AI-enhanced assessments on student learning and employability.”
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“This is explained by Rudolph et al. (2023), who argued that Gen-AI has the potential to enhance the teaching and learning experience through personalized learning materials, simulated conversation partners, and automated grading, but that at present, there may be technological limitations, cost…”
Houston, we have a problem!: The use of ChatGPT in responding to customer complaints
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Redefining entrepreneurship education in the age of artificial intelligence: An explorative analysis
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ChatGPT and the Future of Academic Integrity in the Artificial Intelligence Era: A New Frontier
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The limitations and ethical considerations of ChatGPT
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Opportunities, Challenges, and Strategies for Using ChatGPT in Higher Education: A Literature Review
Sok, S., & Heng, K. (2024) · Journal of Digital Educational Technology · doi:10.30935/jdet/14027 · Cited by 120
“This approach could empower students to assess their own learning and develop their approaches to addressing problems (Rudolph et al., 2023).”
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Students’ attitudes towards using ChatGPT as a learning tool: the case of the University of Jordan.
O. Ajlouni, A., Abd-Alkareem Wahba, F., & Salem Almahaireh, A. (2023) · International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies (iJIM) · doi:10.3991/ijim.v17i18.41753 · Cited by 116
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“5 and GPT-4 models, which has been the subject of extensive discussion regarding its potential influence on academic integrity (Cotton et al. 2023; Perkins 2023; Rahman and Watanobe 2023; Rudolph et al. 2023; Uzun 2023).”
Machine learning heralding a new development phase in molecular dynamics simulations
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“To list some AI success, AlphaGo defeated the world go champion in 2016 (Zhang and Lu 2021), the social humanoid robot Sophia (Retto 2017) made its first public appearance in the same year, while one of the most advanced chatbots chatGPT (Rudolph et al. 2023) appeared in 2022.”
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“They are transforming teachers’ daily instructional method by providing instant feedback and assistance, thus making the learning process more efficient [60].”
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“Beyond individualized feedback, ChatGPT and similar Generative AI (GAI) systems open new horizons for personalized learning pathways, encouraging learners to pursue self-directed education [18], [27], [28], [29], [30], [31], [32].”
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Polyportis, A. (2024) · Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.3389/frai.2023.1324398 · Cited by 111
“In this context, recent studies (Rudolph et al., 2023; Shoufan, 2023; Singh et al., 2023) have already provided initial findings on students’ perceptions, beliefs and functionalities of ChatGPT, offering foundational insights into its application in educational contexts.”
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Let’s Have a Chat! A Conversation with ChatGPT: Technology, Applications, and Limitations
Shahriar, S., & Hayawi, K. (2023) · Artificial Intelligence and Applications · doi:10.47852/bonviewaia3202939 · Cited by 167
“in education ([30], [31], [32]) Highlighted potential benefits”
BackgroundLuo, W., He, H., Liu, J., Berson, I. R., Berson, M. J., Zhou, Y., & Li, H. (2023) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2023.2214181 · Cited by 137
“In addition, many universities have expressed their concerns about plagiarism and academic integrity issues, as students might misuse these tools to complete assignments or assessments without fully understanding the concepts (Rudolph et al., 2023).”
BackgroundImpacts of ChatGPT-assisted writing for EFL English majors: Feasibility and challenges
Tsai, C.-Y., Lin, Y.-T., & Brown, I. K. (2024) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-12722-y · Cited by 133
Bobula, M. (2024) · Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education · doi:10.47408/jldhe.vi30.1137 · Cited by 113
The impact of Artificial Intelligence in academia: Views of Turkish academics on ChatGPT
Livberber, T., & Ayvaz, S. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19688 · Cited by 103
Ironies of artificial intelligence
Endsley, M. R. (2023) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/00140139.2023.2243404 · Cited by 118
“Its answers to questions may be inaccurate or biased and it lacks an understanding of context (Rudolph, Tan, and Tan 2023).”
BackgroundA Systematic Review of the Limitations and Associated Opportunities of ChatGPT
Cong‐Lem, N., Soyoof, A., & Tsering, D. (2024) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2024.2344142 · Cited by 140
Chen, Y., Zhi, Y., & Derakhshan, A. (2025) · European Journal of Education · doi:10.1111/ejed.70157 · Cited by 117
Cai, L., Msafiri, M. M., & Kangwa, D. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-13112-0 · Cited by 104
Exploring ChatGPT literacy in language education: A global perspective and comprehensive approach
Ma, Q., Crosthwaite, P. R., Sun, D., & Zou, D. (2024) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100278 · Cited by 149
Examining students’ intention to use ChatGPT: Does trust matter?
Rahman, M. S., Sabbir, M. M., Zhang, D. J., Moral, I. H., & Hossain, G. M. S. (2023) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.8956 · Cited by 111
“For instance, this AI-enabled chatbot can generate content from prose, stories and articles and even programming code within a few seconds (Rudolph et al., 2023).”
BackgroundInfluentialChatGPT in Higher Education and Science: a Threat or a Valuable Resource?
Ivakhnenko, E. N., & Nikolskiy, V. S. (2023) · Высшее образование в России · doi:10.31992/0869-3617-2023-32-4-9-22 · Cited by 137
Zeb, A., Ullah, R., & Karim, R. (2024) · International Journal of Information and Learning Technology · doi:10.1108/ijilt-04-2023-0046 · Cited by 123
Chen, K., Tallant, A. C., & Selig, I. (2025) · Information and Learning Sciences · doi:10.1108/ils-10-2023-0160 · Cited by 104
Adapting to the Future: ChatGPT as a Means for Supporting Constructivist Learning Environments
Kim, M., & Adlof, L. (2024) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/s11528-023-00899-x · Cited by 97
“Specifically, Rudolph et al. (2023) emphasized that when used as a learning aid, ChatGPT can help facilitate experimentation, collaboration, and learner-centered approaches such as project-based learning and problem-based learning, which encourage knowledge construction through interaction.”
InfluentialPardos, Z. A., & Bhandari, S. (2024) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0304013 · Cited by 97
“Initial reactions to ChatGPT in education centered around the potential increase in cheating threatening existing assessments, particularly in higher education [4, 41].”
BackgroundBarman, D., Guo, Z., & Conlan, O. (2024) · Machine Learning with Applications · doi:10.1016/j.mlwa.2024.100545 · Cited by 127
Naidu, K., & Sevnarayan, K. (2023) · Online Journal of Communication and Media Technologies · doi:10.30935/ojcmt/13291 · Cited by 130
ICT students' perceptions towards ChatGPT: An experimental reflective lab analysis
Elkhodr, M., Gide, E., Wu, M., & Darwish, O. (2023) · STEM Education · doi:10.3934/steme.2023006 · Cited by 135
“and policymakers regarding their potential benefits and drawbacks [14].”
Filho, W. L., Ribeiro, P. C. C., Mazutti, J., Salvia, A. L., Marcolin, C. B., Borsatto, J. M. L. S., Sharifi, A., Sierra, J., Luetz, J. M., Pretorius, R., et al. (2024) · International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology · doi:10.1080/13504509.2024.2327584 · Cited by 128
“In this context, there is a wide range of applications of AI for research purposes in areas such as engineering (Attaran 2023), education (Rudolph et al. 2023), transport (Consilvio et al. 2024), medicine (Kwekha-Rashid et al. 2023), environment (Hafeez et al. 2023), public management (Gao et al.…”
Generative artificial intelligence as an enabler of student feedback engagement: a framework
Zhan, Y., Boud, D., Dawson, P., & Yan, Z. (2025) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/07294360.2025.2476513 · Cited by 94
Groothuijsen, S., van den Beemt, A., Remmers, J. C., & van Meeuwen, L. W. (2024) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100290 · Cited by 92
Mohammadkarimi, E. (2023) · Journal of Applied Learning and Teaching · doi:10.37074/jalt.2023.6.2.10 · Cited by 90
Yan, D., & Zhang, S. (2024) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-024-03543-y · Cited by 90
“Such inference underlined the revolutionary affordance of ChatGPT ’ s conversational AI system in providing a highly customizable and learner-aware environment that satis fi es learners ’ needs through repeated and creative prompt writing (Ranalli 2018; Oppenlaender et al. 2023; Rudolph et al. 2023).”
The Changing Role of Higher Education in the Era of AI-based GPTs
Aithal, P. S., & Aithal, S. (2023) · International Journal of Case Studies in Business IT and Education · doi:10.47992/ijcsbe.2581.6942.0267 · Cited by 91
Teng, M. F. (2024) · International Journal of TESOL Studies · doi:10.58304/ijts.20240304 · Cited by 191
“AI tools like ChatGPT are prompting much-needed innovation in assessment and teaching methods (Rudolph et al., 2023).”
MethodSaúde, S., Barros, J. P., & Almeida, I. A. T. (2024) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci13080410 · Cited by 158
Saputra, I., Astuti, M., Sayuti, M., & Kusumastuti, D. (2023) · Indonesian Journal of Computer Science · doi:10.33022/ijcs.v12i4.3266 · Cited by 122
“This condition makes it more difficult for teachers to identify and prevent plagiarism [30], [31].”
Rane, N. (2024) · TESOL and Technology Studies · doi:10.48185/tts.v5i1.1000 · Cited by 123
Luo (Jess), J. (2025) · Teaching in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/13562517.2024.2341005 · Cited by 132
“A handful of discussion papers have voiced concerns about how GenAI may reinforce a relationship of distrust between university teachers and students (e.g. Kramm and McKenna 2023; Rudolph 2023), but very limited empirical studies can be found on this topic.”
Salinas-Navarro, D. E., Vilalta-Perdomo, E., Michel-Villarreal, R., & Montesinos, L. (2024) · Interactive Technology and Smart Education · doi:10.1108/itse-12-2023-0236 · Cited by 84
Analyzing ChatGPT adoption drivers with the TOEK framework
Jo, H., & Bang, Y. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-49710-0 · Cited by 99
Ateeq, A. A., Alzoraiki, M., Milhem, M., & Ateeq, R. A. (2024) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2024.1470979 · Cited by 167
“For example, essay generators powered by AI have the potential to create material that may evade detection by traditional methods (Narayanan and Kapoor, 2024; Rudolph et al., 2023).”
The AI Assessment Scale (AIAS) in action: A pilot implementation of GenAI supported assessment
Furze, L., Perkins, M., Roe, J., & MacVaugh, J. (2024) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.9434 · Cited by 92
“To ensure the authenticity of student work, some policies and guidance for educators suggest methods for “AI-proofing” assessments, including analysis of videos and images, or use of recorded videos of students (Duah & McGivern, 2024; Rudolph et al., 2023).”
The impact of ChatGPT on human skills: A quantitative study on twitter data
Giordano, V., Spada, I., Chiarello, F., & Fantoni, G. (2024) · Technological Forecasting and Social Change · doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2024.123389 · Cited by 110
Exploring student perspectives on generative artificial intelligence in higher education learning
Baidoo-Anu, D., Asamoah, D., Amoako, I., & Mahama, I. (2024) · Discover Education · doi:10.1007/s44217-024-00173-z · Cited by 151
“For example, Rudolph et al. [43] argued that lower-level cognitive skills are not as well developed.”
InfluentialDai, Y., Lai, S., Lim, C. P., & Liu, A. (2023) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.8843 · Cited by 85
“Educators argue that ChatGPT has been bringing sustainable changes to the teaching, learning and assessment in higher education (Rudolph et al., 2023).”
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Generative AI Professional Development Needs for Teacher Educators
Nyaaba, M., & Zhai, X.-M. (2024) · Journal of AI · doi:10.61969/jai.1385915 · Cited by 81
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The impact of AI in physics education: a comprehensive review from GCSE to university levels
Yeadon, W., & Hardy, T. (2024) · Physics Education · doi:10.1088/1361-6552/ad1fa2 · Cited by 116
ChatGPT: A brief narrative review
Gupta, B., Mufti, T., Sohail, S. S., & Madsen, D. Ø. (2023) · Cogent Business & Management · doi:10.1080/23311975.2023.2275851 · Cited by 95
“Nevertheless, ChatGPT-3 cannot connect to the Web and can only function by utilizing the Internet it has learned during its development, which restricts its ability to acquire outside knowledge (Rudolph et al., 2023).”
BackgroundTeng, M. F. (2024) · European Journal of Education · doi:10.1111/ejed.12811 · Cited by 118
Spennemann, D. H. R. (2023) · Knowledge · doi:10.3390/knowledge3030032 · Cited by 93
Medical education and physician training in the era of artificial intelligence
Xu, Y., Jiang, Z., Ting, D. S. W., Kow, A. W. C., Bello, F., Car, J., Tham, Y.-C., & Wong, T. Y. (2024) · Singapore Medical Journal · doi:10.4103/singaporemedj.smj-2023-203 · Cited by 76
Shimizu, I., Kasai, H., Shikino, K., Araki, N., Takahashi, Z., Onodera, M., Kimura, Y., Tsukamoto, T., Yamauchi, K., Asahina, M., et al. (2023) · JMIR Medical Education · doi:10.2196/53466 · Cited by 81
“On the other hand, the impact of GAI on education is disputed [6], with studies raising concerns about the ethical considerations of ChatGPT [7], evaluation practices [8], scientific integrity [9], and potential negative effects on students’ higher order thinking skills [10].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Rudolph, J., Tan, S., & Tan, S.
- Venue
- Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching
- Publisher
- Open Access Publishing Association
- Published
- 2023-01-25
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 1
- ISSN
- 2591-801X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4317910584
- Semantic Scholar
- 9460f9fbc532416c8ec39591577032a5fa4a79b3
- Cited by
- 1,806
- References
- 84
- Citations by year
- 2026: 258 · 2025: 481 · 2024: 648 · 2023: 418
- FWCI
- 424.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Artificial Intelligence in Education
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Health Informatics › Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education
- Social Sciences › Education › Academic integrity and plagiarism
- Keywords
- ChatGPT, generative AI, student assessment, higher education, AI chatbots, artificial intelligence in education, OpenAI, future of teaching and learning, academic integrity
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