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ChatGPT: Bullshit spewer or the end of traditional assessments in higher education?
Open accessAbstract
ChatGPT is the world’s most advanced chatbot thus far. Unlike other chatbots, it can create impressive prose within seconds, and it has created much hype and doomsday predictions when it comes to student assessment in higher education and a host of other matters. ChatGPT is a state-of-the-art language model (a variant of OpenAI’s Generative Pretrained Transformer (GPT) language model) designed to generate text that can be indistinguishable from text written by humans. It can engage in conversation with users in a seemingly natural and intuitive way. In this article, we briefly tell the story of OpenAI, the organisation behind ChatGPT. We highlight the fundamental change from a not-for-profit organisation to a commercial business model. In terms of our methods, we conducted an extensive literature review and experimented with this artificial intelligence (AI) software. Our literature review shows our review to be amongst the first peer-reviewed academic journal articles to explore ChatGPT and its relevance for higher education (especially assessment, learning and teaching). After a description of ChatGPT’s functionality and a summary of its strengths and limitations, we focus on the technology’s implications for higher education and discuss what is the future of learning, teaching and assessment in higher education in the context of AI chatbots such as ChatGPT. We position ChatGPT in the context of current Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIEd) research, discuss student-facing, teacher-facing and system-facing applications, and analyse opportunities and threats. We conclude the article with recommendations for students, teachers and higher education institutions. Many of them focus on assessment.
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“The advent of GenAI has unveiled a plethora of threats to higher education and the broader societal fabric, encompassing concerns over authorship, copyright infringement, and the potential for misuse in activities such as spamming, disseminating fake news, creating malware, and hacking (Marcus, 2023;Rudolph et al., 2023aRudolph et al., , 2023b)).”
From Higher Education's Generative Artificial Intelligence Paradox: The Meaning of Chatbot Mania (2024) · cites this paper as Rudolph et al., 2023a
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“It is considered by many as the most powerful AI tool ever crated [9].”
From New Era of Artificial Intelligence in Education: Towards a Sustainable Multifaceted Revolution (2023) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“While AI technology offers promising ability for personalized learning experiences, efficient assessment, and adaptive feedback, it also presents novel challenges to the dynamics of the traditional educational bond [9].”
From New Era of Artificial Intelligence in Education: Towards a Sustainable Multifaceted Revolution (2023) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The diverse learning trajectories observed in these cases illustrate how AI tools can facilitate non-linear, adaptive learning processes by enabling students to dynamically integrate new information with prior knowledge and external resources [15, 16].”
From Scaffolding Creativity: Integrating Generative AI Tools and Real-World Experiences in Business Education (2025) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“It is more student-friendly and can provide more need-based assistance than other AWE tools, as suggested by Guo et al. (2022) and Rudolph et al. (2023).”
From Impact of ChatGPT on ESL students’ academic writing skills: a mixed methods intervention study (2024) · cites this paper as Rudolph et al. (2023)
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“On the other hand, the promotion of learner autonomy and peer collaboration are similar to findings in the AWE literature (Dai et al., 2023;Rudolph et al., 2023).”
From Impact of ChatGPT on ESL students’ academic writing skills: a mixed methods intervention study (2024) · cites this paper as Rudolph et al., 2023
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“GPT-3's training on a vast corpus of 45 terabytes of text, sourced from a variety of internet-based entities like Common Crawl and Wikipedia, set a precedent for the scale of data utilised in AI development (Brown et al., 2020;Rudolph et al., 2023a).”
From Higher Education's Generative Artificial Intelligence Paradox: The Meaning of Chatbot Mania (2024) · cites this paper as Rudolph et al., 2023a
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“They highlight the transformative potential of generative AI in revolutionizing academic practices but also caution about its ability to facilitate academic dishonesty, such as through generating test answers [25].”
From Generative AI and Academic Integrity in Higher Education: A Systematic Review and Research Agenda (2025) · cites this paper as [25]
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In the citing paper
“They highlight the transformative potential of generative AI in revolutionizing academic practices but also caution about its ability to facilitate academic dishonesty, such as through generating test answers [25].”
From Generative AI and Academic Integrity in Higher Education: A Systematic Review and Research Agenda (2025) · cites this paper as [25]
In the citing paper
“However, concerns have been raised about ethical consideration and decreased reliability of the existing examinations.”
From Developing Medical Education Curriculum Reform Strategies to Address the Impact of Generative AI: Qualitative Study (2023) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“On the other hand, the impact of GAI on education is disputed [6], with studies raising concerns about the ethical considerations of ChatGPT [7], evaluation practices [8], scientific integrity [9], and potential negative effects on students’ higher order thinking skills [10].”
From Developing Medical Education Curriculum Reform Strategies to Address the Impact of Generative AI: Qualitative Study (2023) · cites this paper as [8]
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Cites
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“ChatGPT, an innovative language model, can produce text that closely resembles human-written content, facilitating natural and intuitive interactions with users (Rudolph et al., 2023).”
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“Despite these concerns, there is a recognition, as highlighted by Rudolph et al. (2023), that ChatGPT and similar AI tools can be valuable in facilitating innovative teaching and learning practices.”
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Aithal, P. S., & Aithal, S. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4674364 · Cited by 10
Wang, K., Akins, S., Mohammed, A., & Lawrence, R. (2023) · 2023 International Conference on Computational Science and Computational Intelligence (CSCI) · doi:10.1109/csci62032.2023.00268 · Cited by 8
“Generative AI also has problems with fake, inaccurate, and biased data [2], [3].”
BackgroundInfluentialExploring ChatGPT Utilization Among Master's Students in Higher Education
Jahani, M., Baruah, B., & Ward, A. (2024) · 2024 21st International Conference on Information Technology Based Higher Education and Training (ITHET) · doi:10.1109/ithet61869.2024.10837601 · Cited by 9
Generative AI in Terms of Its Ethical Problems for Both Teachers and Learners
Le-Nguyen, H.-T., & Tran, T. T. (2023) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-0074-9.ch006 · Cited by 12
Algorithmic recommendations enabling and constraining information practices among young people
Jylhä, V., Hirvonen, N., & Haider, J. (2024) · Journal of Documentation · doi:10.1108/jd-05-2023-0102 · Cited by 14
THE ROLE OF GENERATIVE AI-POWERED PERSONAS IN DEVELOPING GRADUATE INTERVIEWING SKILLS
Sabbaghan, S., & Brown, B. (2024) · International journal on innovations in online education · doi:10.1615/intjinnovonlineedu.2024051770 · Cited by 9
Firth, D., Derendinger, M. L., & Triche, J. (2024) · Information Systems Education Journal · doi:10.62273/bzsu7160 · Cited by 10
El impacto de ChatGPT en la formación y producción académica: que no cunda el pánico
Sánchez, O. Z. (2024) · RIDE Revista Iberoamericana para la Investigación y el Desarrollo Educativo · doi:10.23913/ride.v14i28.1867 · Cited by 17
Examining the Capabilities of GPT-4 to Write an APA-Style School Psychology Paper
Lockwood, A. B., & Castleberry, J. J. (2024) · Contemporary School Psychology · doi:10.1007/s40688-024-00500-z · Cited by 15
Using Artificial Intelligence for Essay Writing
Jen, S. L., & Salam, A. R. (2024) · Arab World English Journal · doi:10.24093/awej/chatgpt.5 · Cited by 11
“Studies done by Pradana et al. (2023), Rudolph et al. (2023), Dai et al. (2023), Su and Yang (2023), Sundar and Liao (2023) and Hung and Chen (2023) have shown that ChatGPT has been used as the main source of information for students.”
BackgroundEmdad, F. B., Ravuri, B., Ayinde, L., & Rahman, M. I. (2023) · 2024 IEEE International Conference on Interdisciplinary Approaches in Technology and Management for Social Innovation (IATMSI) · doi:10.1109/iatmsi60426.2024.10502836 · Cited by 12
“Several studies have been conducted on using ChatGPT for educational purposes [12], [17]–[19].”
BackgroundInteractive Chatbot ChatGPT in Education: Challenges and Opportunities
Zabelin, D. A., Plashcheva, E. V., & Ланина, С. Ю. (2023) · Преподаватель ХХI век · doi:10.31862/2073-9613-2023-4-94-102 · Cited by 9
Benefits, Challenges, and Attitudes Toward ChatGPT in English Writing Courses at Saudi Universities
Alqahtani, N. S. (2024) · International Journal of Language and Literary Studies · doi:10.36892/ijlls.v6i2.1739 · Cited by 18
Albuquerque, F., & dos Santos, P. G. (2024) · Administrative Sciences · doi:10.3390/admsci14070152 · Cited by 14
“…the platform’s responses given that it may provide convincing answers without fully comprehending the question or by making incorrect assumptions about it (Abeysekera 2024; Cohen et al. 2023; Lund and Wang 2023; Rudolph et al. 2023; Stott and Stott 2023; Vasarhelyi et al. 2023; Zhao and Wang 2024).”
BackgroundChatGPT and Me: Collaborative Creativity in a Group Brainstorming with Generative AI
Kim, H. K., Roknaldin, A., Nayak, S., Zhang, X., Yang, M., Twyman, M. D., Hwang, A. H., & Lu, S. C.-Y. (2024) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--48457 · Cited by 10
Enhancing Education with ChatGPT: Revolutionizing Personalized Learning and Teacher Support
Govindaraja, K., Goudar, R. H., Dhananjaya, G. M., Kaliwal, R. B., Rathod, V. N., Deshpande, S. L., Kulkarni, A., & Hukkeri, G. S. (2024) · EAI Endorsed Transactions on Internet of Things · doi:10.4108/eetiot.6998 · Cited by 17
“Its immediate assistance in a conversational manner not only answers queries but also makes learning more enjoyable and relatable [19, 20].”
BackgroundMethodJelson, A., & Lee, S. W. (2024) · Workshop on Intelligent and Interactive Writing Assistants (In2Writing) · doi:10.1145/3690712.3690720 · Cited by 9
UYGUN, T., Şendur, A., Top, B., & Coşgun-Başeğmez, K. (2024) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-13084-1 · Cited by 9
“Unlike typical chatbots, Chat-GPT offers revolutionary features in terms of creativity (Rudolph et al., 2023).”
Examining the Accuracy of AI Detection Software Tools in Education
Halaweh, M., & Refae, G. A. E. (2024) · International Conference on Intelligent Data Science Technologies and Applications (IDSTA) · doi:10.1109/idsta62194.2024.10747004 · Cited by 13
“GPT-4 is expected to have around 100 trillion parameters, approximately 500 times more than GPT-3, thus approaching the number of neural connections in the human brain [3].”
BackgroundOfem, U. J., Ene, E. I., Ajuluchukwu, E. N., Neji, H. A., Edam-Agbor, I. B., Orim, F. S., Nwogwugwu, C. E., Ovat, S. V., Ukatu, J. O., Ekpang, P. O., et al. (2024) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100337 · Cited by 14
ChatGPT in marketing: innovative pathways, decision systems, and forward perspectives
Singh, H., Arora, M., & Singh, A. (2024) · Journal of Decision System · doi:10.1080/12460125.2024.2438615 · Cited by 12
Jiang, J., Vetter, M. A., & Lucia, B. (2024) · Technical Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1080/10572252.2024.2445302 · Cited by 9
“On one end of the spectrum, ChatGPT has been characterized as a “bullshit spewer” (Rudolph et al., 2023), a “false promise” (Chomsky et al., 2023), an engine for cheating and fabrication in secondary and postsecondary education (Widianingtyas et al., 2023) and the death of college writing…”
Automated Consistency Analysis of LLMs
Patwardhan, A., Vaidya, V., & Kundu, A. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Trust, Privacy and Security in Intelligent Systems and Applications (TPS-ISA) · doi:10.1109/tps-isa62245.2024.00023 · Cited by 15
“Meanwhile, discussions on the impact on higher education [23] highlight concerns about its ability to generate text that resembles human-authored content.”
Edam-Agbor, I. B., Orim, F. S., Ofem, U. J., Ekpang, P. O., Echu, A. E., Okim, T. O., Undie, M. A., Ogunjimi, B. E., Egbe, I. M., Akin-Fakorede, O. O., et al. (2025) · Social Sciences & Humanities Open · doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2025.101333 · Cited by 9
Castro, M. P., & Sekli, G. M. (2025) · Journal of Education for Business · doi:10.1080/08832323.2025.2470731 · Cited by 12
“Its versatility extends to experiential learning and skill development, particularly in language acquisition, through the integration of resources from platforms like Grammarly and Google Translate (Rudolph et al., 2023).”
Okulu, H. Z. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-025-13580-y · Cited by 11
“It uses large datasets and advanced algorithms to imitate human conversations and provide contextually relevant responses (Rudolph et al., 2023 ).”
Yang, F., & Stefaniak, J. E. (2025) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-025-10509-7 · Cited by 12
“For example, Rudolph et al. (2023) warned that students who rely overly on the tool without deeply engaging with the content will encounter a deficiency in critical thinking skills, making it challenging for instructors to accurately assess their true abilities based on the seemingly accurate…”
Humanizing generative AI Brands: How brand anthropomorphism converts customers into brand heroes
Hussain, K. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100707 · Cited by 12
Carruba, M. C., Caiazzo, A., Scuotto, C., Savioni, L., & Triberti, S. (2025) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2024.0524 · Cited by 12
Gökçearslan, Ş., Eşiyok, E., & Küçükergi̇n, K. G. (2025) · Journal of Computational Social Science · doi:10.1007/s42001-025-00387-7 · Cited by 14
“AI applications can also help teachers gain insight into their students’ learning progress by guiding them, and for students, it could help improve their skills and critical thinking [96].”
Artificial intelligence performance in pediatric asthma
Yiğit, E. Ş., Taşkırdı, İ., Hacı, İ. A., & Tunçel, T. (2025) · Journal of Asthma · doi:10.1080/02770903.2025.2531500 · Cited by 9
Ah‐Pine, E. N., & Awuye, I. S. (2025) · Journal of International Education in Business · doi:10.1108/jieb-09-2024-0123 · Cited by 10
Shaping the future of education: a cluster analysis of generative AI’s transformative impact
Issa, H.-E. A., & Maheshwari, G. (2025) · Interactive Technology and Smart Education · doi:10.1108/itse-01-2025-0013 · Cited by 17
Theorizing the future of generative AI in education
Ebben, M., & Murphy, J. S. (2025) · Learning Media and Technology · doi:10.1080/17439884.2025.2537961 · Cited by 9
How to Use Generative AI in Educational Research
Roe, J. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009675338 · Cited by 12
Yang, C., Chen, J., Hou, S., Wider, W., & Yi, W. L. (2025) · Discover Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1007/s44163-025-00732-9 · Cited by 10
Henadirage, A., Chathuranga, B. T. K., & Gunarathne, N. (2026) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-026-00578-w · Cited by 9
“…academics are required to steer clear of generic assessment categories that could be generated by either a human or an artificial intelligence assistant and, instead, customise assessments to assist students in cultivating their creative and critical thinking skills (Rudolph et al., 2023).”
InfluentialLi, A. W., & Collins, P. (2026) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-026-10761-0 · Cited by 9
The Usage of Artificial Intelligence in Education in Light of the Spread of ChatGPT
Hassan, A. (2023) · Contributions to management science · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-6101-6_50 · Cited by 10
The Role of ChatGPT in Higher Education: Some Reflections from Public Administration Students
Aristovnik, A., Umek, L., Brezovar, N., Keržič, D., & Ravšelj, D. (2023) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-8255-4_22 · Cited by 13
Nudging Motivation to Learn English Through a ChatGPT Smartphone-Based Hybrid Model
Muthmainnah, M., Apriani, E., Seraj, P. M. I., Obaid, A. J., & Yakin, A. M. A. (2023) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-0502-7.ch002 · Cited by 9
The Application of ChatGPT in Language Test Design – The What and How
Nguyễn, T. P. T. (2023) · Proceedings of the AsiaCALL International Conference · doi:10.54855/paic.2348 · Cited by 10
“The applications of the chatbot related to text and question generation have been presented in Rudolph et al. (2023) Research question 3: How effective is ChatGPT in designing language tests as perceived by teachers?”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialUses and Misuses of ChatGPT as an AI-Language Model in Academic Writing
Mahdi, R., Salehi, H., & Tabatabaei, O. (2024) · 2024 10th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Robotics (QICAR) · doi:10.1109/qicar61538.2024.10496607 · Cited by 12
Addressing Academic Misconduct in the Age of ChatGPT: Strategies and Solutions
Wang, J., & Cornely, P.-R. (2023) · International Conference on Education and E-Learning (ICEEL) · doi:10.1145/3637989.3638014 · Cited by 11
Metadata
- Authors
- Rudolph, J., Tan, S., & Tan, S.
- Venue
- Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching
- Publisher
- Open Access Publishing Association
- Published
- 2023-01-25
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 1
- ISSN
- 2591-801X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4317910584
- Semantic Scholar
- 9460f9fbc532416c8ec39591577032a5fa4a79b3
- Cited by
- 1,806
- References
- 84
- Citations by year
- 2026: 258 · 2025: 481 · 2024: 648 · 2023: 418
- FWCI
- 424.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Artificial Intelligence in Education
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Health Informatics › Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education
- Social Sciences › Education › Academic integrity and plagiarism
- Keywords
- ChatGPT, generative AI, student assessment, higher education, AI chatbots, artificial intelligence in education, OpenAI, future of teaching and learning, academic integrity
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