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ChatGPT: Bullshit spewer or the end of traditional assessments in higher education?
Open accessAbstract
ChatGPT is the world’s most advanced chatbot thus far. Unlike other chatbots, it can create impressive prose within seconds, and it has created much hype and doomsday predictions when it comes to student assessment in higher education and a host of other matters. ChatGPT is a state-of-the-art language model (a variant of OpenAI’s Generative Pretrained Transformer (GPT) language model) designed to generate text that can be indistinguishable from text written by humans. It can engage in conversation with users in a seemingly natural and intuitive way. In this article, we briefly tell the story of OpenAI, the organisation behind ChatGPT. We highlight the fundamental change from a not-for-profit organisation to a commercial business model. In terms of our methods, we conducted an extensive literature review and experimented with this artificial intelligence (AI) software. Our literature review shows our review to be amongst the first peer-reviewed academic journal articles to explore ChatGPT and its relevance for higher education (especially assessment, learning and teaching). After a description of ChatGPT’s functionality and a summary of its strengths and limitations, we focus on the technology’s implications for higher education and discuss what is the future of learning, teaching and assessment in higher education in the context of AI chatbots such as ChatGPT. We position ChatGPT in the context of current Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIEd) research, discuss student-facing, teacher-facing and system-facing applications, and analyse opportunities and threats. We conclude the article with recommendations for students, teachers and higher education institutions. Many of them focus on assessment.
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“The advent of GenAI has unveiled a plethora of threats to higher education and the broader societal fabric, encompassing concerns over authorship, copyright infringement, and the potential for misuse in activities such as spamming, disseminating fake news, creating malware, and hacking (Marcus, 2023;Rudolph et al., 2023aRudolph et al., , 2023b)).”
From Higher Education's Generative Artificial Intelligence Paradox: The Meaning of Chatbot Mania (2024) · cites this paper as Rudolph et al., 2023a
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“It is considered by many as the most powerful AI tool ever crated [9].”
From New Era of Artificial Intelligence in Education: Towards a Sustainable Multifaceted Revolution (2023) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“While AI technology offers promising ability for personalized learning experiences, efficient assessment, and adaptive feedback, it also presents novel challenges to the dynamics of the traditional educational bond [9].”
From New Era of Artificial Intelligence in Education: Towards a Sustainable Multifaceted Revolution (2023) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The diverse learning trajectories observed in these cases illustrate how AI tools can facilitate non-linear, adaptive learning processes by enabling students to dynamically integrate new information with prior knowledge and external resources [15, 16].”
From Scaffolding Creativity: Integrating Generative AI Tools and Real-World Experiences in Business Education (2025) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“It is more student-friendly and can provide more need-based assistance than other AWE tools, as suggested by Guo et al. (2022) and Rudolph et al. (2023).”
From Impact of ChatGPT on ESL students’ academic writing skills: a mixed methods intervention study (2024) · cites this paper as Rudolph et al. (2023)
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“On the other hand, the promotion of learner autonomy and peer collaboration are similar to findings in the AWE literature (Dai et al., 2023;Rudolph et al., 2023).”
From Impact of ChatGPT on ESL students’ academic writing skills: a mixed methods intervention study (2024) · cites this paper as Rudolph et al., 2023
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“GPT-3's training on a vast corpus of 45 terabytes of text, sourced from a variety of internet-based entities like Common Crawl and Wikipedia, set a precedent for the scale of data utilised in AI development (Brown et al., 2020;Rudolph et al., 2023a).”
From Higher Education's Generative Artificial Intelligence Paradox: The Meaning of Chatbot Mania (2024) · cites this paper as Rudolph et al., 2023a
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“They highlight the transformative potential of generative AI in revolutionizing academic practices but also caution about its ability to facilitate academic dishonesty, such as through generating test answers [25].”
From Generative AI and Academic Integrity in Higher Education: A Systematic Review and Research Agenda (2025) · cites this paper as [25]
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In the citing paper
“They highlight the transformative potential of generative AI in revolutionizing academic practices but also caution about its ability to facilitate academic dishonesty, such as through generating test answers [25].”
From Generative AI and Academic Integrity in Higher Education: A Systematic Review and Research Agenda (2025) · cites this paper as [25]
In the citing paper
“However, concerns have been raised about ethical consideration and decreased reliability of the existing examinations.”
From Developing Medical Education Curriculum Reform Strategies to Address the Impact of Generative AI: Qualitative Study (2023) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“On the other hand, the impact of GAI on education is disputed [6], with studies raising concerns about the ethical considerations of ChatGPT [7], evaluation practices [8], scientific integrity [9], and potential negative effects on students’ higher order thinking skills [10].”
From Developing Medical Education Curriculum Reform Strategies to Address the Impact of Generative AI: Qualitative Study (2023) · cites this paper as [8]
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Reconceptualizing ChatGPT and generative AI as a student-driven innovation in higher education
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ChatGPT for Education and Research: A Review of Benefits and Risks
Sok, S., & Heng, K. (2023) · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4378735 · Cited by 386
Liu, M., Ren, Y., Nyagoga, L. M., Stonier, F., Wu, Z., & Yu, L. (2023) · Future in Educational Research · doi:10.1002/fer3.10 · Cited by 267
Wang, H., Dang, A., Wu, Z., & Mac, S. (2024) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100326 · Cited by 272
“Then we performed a systematic search using”
BackgroundCamilleri, M. A. (2024) · Technological Forecasting and Social Change · doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2024.123247 · Cited by 261
Higher education students’ perceptions of ChatGPT: A global study of early reactions
Ravšelj, D., Keržič, D., Tomaževič, N., Umek, L., Brezovar, N., A. Iahad, N., Abdulla, A. A., Akopyan, A., Aldana Segura, M. W., AlHumaid, J., et al. (2025) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0315011 · Cited by 376
Generative AI and Academic Integrity in Higher Education: A Systematic Review and Research Agenda
Bittle, K., & El-Gayar, O. (2025) · Information · doi:10.3390/info16040296 · Cited by 305
“Policy reform may be a more immediate solution to these woes, as discussed by Rudolph et al. [25].”
InfluentialStrzelecki, A., & ElArabawy, S. (2024) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13425 · Cited by 260
A comprehensive survey of ChatGPT: Advancements, applications, prospects, and challenges
Nazir, A., & Wang, Z. (2023) · Meta-Radiology · doi:10.1016/j.metrad.2023.100022 · Cited by 245
The Challenges and Opportunities of AI-Assisted Writing: Developing AI Literacy for the AI Age
Cardon, P. W., Fleischmann, C., Aritz, J., Logemann, M., & Heidewald, J. (2023) · Business and Professional Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1177/23294906231176517 · Cited by 380
“There has been prominent coverage about ChatGPT in the context of higher education (D’Agostino, 2023; Rudolph et al., 2023).”
BackgroundDerakhshan, A., & Ghiasvand, F. (2024) · International Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1111/ijal.12561 · Cited by 304
The influence of AI text generators on critical thinking skills in UK business schools
Essien, A., Bukoye, O. T., O’Dea, X., & Kremantzis, M. (2024) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075079.2024.2316881 · Cited by 252
ChatGPT in education: global reactions to AI innovations
Fütterer, T., Fischer, C., Alekseeva, A., Chen, X., Tate, T., Warschauer, M., & Gerjets, P. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-42227-6 · Cited by 242
A Systematic Review of Generative AI for Teaching and Learning Practice
Ogunleye, B., Zakariyyah, K. I., Ajao, O., Olayinka, O., & Sharma, H. (2024) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci14060636 · Cited by 251
An, Y., Yu, J. H., & James, S. (2025) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-025-00507-3 · Cited by 337
“The primary concerns regarding the use of GenAI in higher education have been the issues of academic integrity and academic dishonesty (Chan, 2023; Cotton et al., 2023; Moorhouse et al., 2023; Rudolph et al., 2023; Sullivan et al., 2023).”
InfluentialKostka, I., & Toncelli, R. (2023) · Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language--TESL-EJ · doi:10.55593/ej.27107int · Cited by 253
“As AI tools become a common platform in 21st century learning, work, and life (Schroeder, 2023), education will also need to equip students with the ability to critically analyze AI-generated output and become “technologically literate in an increasingly tech-centric world” (Abramson, 2023, p. 5).”
BackgroundMoorhouse, B. L., & Kohnke, L. (2024) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2024.103290 · Cited by 352
Ruiz, L. M. S., Moll-López, S., Nuñez-Pérez, A., Moraño, J.-A., & Vega-Fleitas, E. (2023) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app13106039 · Cited by 306
Raghu Raman, R., Mandal, S., Das, P., Kaur, T., Sanjanasri, J. P., & Nedungadi, P. (2024) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1155/2024/3085910 · Cited by 288
“Concurrently, fi ndings from Rudolph et al. [61] and Mogavi et al. [49] point to the observable merits of ChatGPT — ranging from enriched learning trajectories to heightened student participation — as catalysts for its integration.”
BackgroundTossell, C. C., Tenhundfeld, N. L., Momen, A., Cooley, K., & de Visser, E. J. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies · doi:10.1109/tlt.2024.3355015 · Cited by 218
“In addition, AIs limited knowledge base and inconsistent factual precision have been recognized as significant drawbacks [25].”
BackgroundLee, U., Jung, H., Jeon, Y., Sohn, Y., Hwang, W., Moon, J., & Kim, H. (2024) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-12249-8 · Cited by 217
“ChatGPT, as identified in several studies (Bang et al., 2023; Alkaissi & McFarlane, 2023; Rudolph et al., 2023; Ali et al., 2022), can produce a ’hallucination’ effect or plausible but incorrect answers, particularly for complex tasks.”
The use of ChatGPT in the digital era: Perspectives on chatbot implementation
Limna, P., Kraiwanit, T., Jangjarat, K., Klayklung, P., & Chocksathaporn, P. (2023) · Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching · doi:10.37074/jalt.2023.6.1.32 · Cited by 294
Crawford, J., Allen, K.-A., Pani, B., & Cowling, M. (2024) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075079.2024.2326956 · Cited by 224
Open AI in Education, the Responsible and Ethical Use of ChatGPT Towards Lifelong Learning
Mhlanga, D. (2023) · Sustainable Development Goals Series · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-37776-1_17 · Cited by 718
ElSayary, A. (2023) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12926 · Cited by 305
Student Interaction with ChatGPT Can Promote Complex Critical Thinking Skills
Suriano, R., Plebe, A., Acciai, A., & Fabio, R. A. (2025) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2024.102011 · Cited by 208
ChatGPT in the higher education: A systematic literature review and research challenges
Baig, M. I., & Yadegaridehkordi, E. (2024) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2024.102411 · Cited by 208
Polyportis, A., & Pahos, N. (2024) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2024.2317364 · Cited by 264
Castonguay, A., Farthing, P., Davies, S., Vogelsang, L., Kleib, M., Risling, T., & Green, N. (2023) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2023.105916 · Cited by 203
La nueva realidad de la educación ante los avances de la inteligencia artificial generativa
García Peñalvo, F. J., Llorens-Largo, F., & Vidal, J. (2023) · RIED-Revista Iberoamericana de Educación a Distancia · doi:10.5944/ried.27.1.37716 · Cited by 238
Educational Applications of the ChatGPT AI System: A Systematic Review Research
İPEK, Z. H., Gözüm, A. İ. C., Papadakis, S., & Kalogiannakis, M. (2023) · Educational Process International Journal · doi:10.22521/edupij.2023.123.2 · Cited by 215
“Due to this ability, various academics authored articles on this subject to test the dimensions of this feature of ChatGPT (Aljanabi et al., 2023; Aydın & Karaarslan, 2022; Pavlik, 2023; Rudolph et al., 2023; Zhai, 2022).”
BackgroundInfluentialAlshami, A., Elsayed, M., Ali, E., Eltoukhy, A. E. E., & Zayed, T. (2023) · Systems · doi:10.3390/systems11070351 · Cited by 202
Discussing ChatGPT in education: A literature review and bibliometric analysis
Pradana, M., Elisa, H. P., & Syarifuddin, S. (2023) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2023.2243134 · Cited by 253
“Although there is already existing research on the topic of ChatGPT in education sector (Pavlik, 2023), to the best of the authors’ knowledge (Rudolph et al., 2023), there have been only few studies that have specifically reviewed and evaluated the subject area of ChatGPT in education sector using…”
MethodPerkins, M., Roe, J., Postma, D., McGaughran, J., & Hickerson, D. (2024) · Journal of Academic Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10805-023-09492-6 · Cited by 234
“This advancement in AI has sparked serious ethical concerns related to the potential misrepresentation of authorship and authenticity of academic work (Cotton et al., 2023 ; Perkins, 2023; Rahman & Watanobe, 2023 ; Rodgers et al., 2023 ; Rudolph et al., 2023).”
Ansari, A. N., Ahmad, S., & Bhutta, S. M. (2024) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-12223-4 · Cited by 198
“At the first level, students use ChatGPT for generating ideas as a pre-writing strategy, facilitating the initial stages of the writing process (Rudolph et al., 2023; Sullivan et al., 2023).”
ChatGPT: The End of Online Exam Integrity?
Sušnjak, T., & McIntosh, T. R. (2024) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci14060656 · Cited by 271
“Others [39–41] have recommended integrating multimodal approaches into exams which venture beyond just text-based questions and additionally combine visual components.”
Generative AI in Higher Education: The ChatGPT Effect
Chan, C. K. Y., & Colloton, T. (2024) · Routledge · doi:10.4324/9781003459026 · Cited by 203
Almogren, A. S., Al-Rahmi, W. M., & Dahri, N. A. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31887 · Cited by 250
“The findings indicated that students valued ChatGPT for its ability to facilitate discussions, provide explanations, and support problem-solving tasks, contributing to their acceptance and engagement with the technology [55,56].”
BackgroundXu, X., Qiao, L., Cheng, N., Liu, H., & Zhao, W. (2025) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13599 · Cited by 316
Albayati, H. (2024) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100203 · Cited by 188
Samala, A. D., Rawas, S., Wang, T., Reed, J. M., Kim, J., Howard, N.-J., & Ertz, M. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-12936-0 · Cited by 229
“…from prohibiting students from using ChatGPT in schools to blocking access to ChatGPT because of concerns about potential misuse by students, such as using it for final exams (Zhu et al., 2023), completing assignments (Rudolph et al., 2023), and answering multiple-choice questions (Alabool, 2023).”
Teng, M. F. (2024) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100270 · Cited by 182
Kelly, A., Sullivan, M., & Strampel, K. (2023) · Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice · doi:10.53761/1.20.6.12 · Cited by 177
Kofinas, A. K., Tsay, C. H., & Pike, D. (2025) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13585 · Cited by 207
Choi, E. P. H., Lee, J. J., Ho, M.-H., Kwok, J. Y. Y., & Lok, K. Y. W. (2023) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2023.105796 · Cited by 172
Hashem, R., Ali, N., El Zein, F., Fidalgo, P., & Abu Khurma, O. (2023) · Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning · doi:10.58459/rptel.2024.19023 · Cited by 173
“Through this approach, ChatGPT offers personalised recommendations tailored to each teacher’s unique needs and challenges (Rudolph et al., 2023; Shen et al., 2023).”
BackgroundHuman-AI agency in the age of generative AI
Krakowski, S. M. (2025) · Information and Organization · doi:10.1016/j.infoandorg.2025.100560 · Cited by 223
Wang, Y., Derakhshan, A., & Ghiasvand, F. (2025) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2025.103791 · Cited by 199
Let's have a chat! A Conversation with ChatGPT: Technology, Applications, and Limitations
Shahriar, S., & Hayawi, K. (2023) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2302.13817 · Cited by 167
Metadata
- Authors
- Rudolph, J., Tan, S., & Tan, S.
- Venue
- Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching
- Publisher
- Open Access Publishing Association
- Published
- 2023-01-25
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 1
- ISSN
- 2591-801X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4317910584
- Semantic Scholar
- 9460f9fbc532416c8ec39591577032a5fa4a79b3
- Cited by
- 1,806
- References
- 84
- Citations by year
- 2026: 258 · 2025: 481 · 2024: 648 · 2023: 418
- FWCI
- 424.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Artificial Intelligence in Education
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Health Informatics › Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education
- Social Sciences › Education › Academic integrity and plagiarism
- Keywords
- ChatGPT, generative AI, student assessment, higher education, AI chatbots, artificial intelligence in education, OpenAI, future of teaching and learning, academic integrity
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