The comparative study of metacognition: Sharper paradigms, safer inferences
Open accessAbstract
Results that point to animals' metacognitive capacity bear a heavy burden, given the potential for competing behavioral descriptions. In this article, formal models are used to evaluate the force of these descriptions. One example is that many existing studies have directly rewarded so-called uncertainty responses. Modeling confirms that this practice is an interpretative danger because it supports associative processes and encourages simpler interpretations. Another example is that existing studies raise the concern that animals avoid difficult stimuli not because of uncertainty monitored, but because of aversion given error-causing or reinforcement-lean stimuli. Modeling also justifies this concern and shows that this problem is not addressed by the common practice of comparing performance on chosen and forced trials. The models and related discussion have utility for metacognition researchers and theorists broadly, because they specify the experimental operations that will best indicate a metacognitive capacity in humans or animals by eliminating alternative behavioral accounts.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
This simple mechanism brings certainty under the same rubric as choice and reaction time and removes the need to resort to meta-cognitive explanations for certainty monitoring.
“This simple mechanism brings certainty, which is commonly conceived as a subjective aspect of decision making, under the same rubric as choice and RT (1, 62) and removes the need to resort to meta-cognitive explanations for certainty monitoring (45).”
From Representation of Confidence Associated with a Decision by Neurons in the Parietal Cortex (2009) · cites this paper as [45]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry
Flavell, J. H. (1979) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.34.10.906 · Cited by 11,282 · cited 1× · see citing works
“These responses are the empirical phenomena that ground the literature on metacognition (Flavell, 1979; Koriat, 1993; Nelson, 1992; Schwartz, 1994).”
A Handbook of Child Psychology
(1932) · Nature · doi:10.1038/130331a0 · Cited by 10,133 · see citing works
Detection Theory: A User's Guide
Macmillan, N. A., & Creelman, C. D. (1991) · Cited by 5,415 · see citing works
Toward a Universal Law of Generalization for Psychological Science
Shepard, R. N. (1987) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.3629243 · Cited by 2,416 · see citing works
The formation of learning sets.
Harlow, H. F. (1949) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0062474 · Cited by 1,959 · see citing works
Learning, Remembering, and Understanding
Reynolds, S. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315211985-5 · Cited by 1,428 · see citing works
An introduction to comparative psychology.
Morgan, C. L. (1894) · Walter Scott Publishing Co eBooks · doi:10.1037/11344-000 · Cited by 1,146 · see citing works
How do we know that we know? The accessibility model of the feeling of knowing
Koriat, A. (1993) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.100.4.609 · Cited by 895 · see citing works
Consciousness and metacognition.
Nelson, T. O. (1996) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.51.2.102 · Cited by 860 · see citing works
Self‐awareness and the emergence of mind in primates
Gallup, G. G. (1982) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.1350020302 · Cited by 793 · see citing works
The Journal of General Psychology
B., E. G., Titchener, E. B., & Murchison, C. (1928) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1414495 · Cited by 661 · see citing works
Metacognition and consciousness
Koriat, A. (2007) · The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816789.012 · Cited by 554 · see citing works
Rhesus monkeys know when they remember
Hampton, R. R. (2001) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.071600998 · Cited by 493 · see citing works
Do apes and children know what they have seen?
Call, J., & Carpenter, M. (2001) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s100710100078 · Cited by 416 · see citing works
The comparative psychology of uncertainty monitoring and metacognition
Smith, J. D., Shields, W. E., & Washburn, D. A. (2003) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x03000086 · Cited by 404 · see citing works
Self-citationTransfer of metacognitive skills and hint seeking in monkeys
Kornell, N., Son, L. K., & Terrace, H. S. (2007) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01850.x · Cited by 341 · cited 2× · see citing works
“However, we know that many studies have introduced an additional factor into the situation by directly rewarding uncertainty responses with food or with highly desired food tokens (Foote & Crystal, 2007; Hampton, 2001; Inman & Shettleworth, 1999; Kornell et al., 2007; SudaKing, 2008).”
Perceptual-cognitive universals as reflections of the world
Shepard, R. N. (1994) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03200759 · Cited by 309 · see citing works
The uncertain response in the bottlenosed dolphin (Tursiops truncatus).
Smith, J. D., Schull, J., Strote, J. N., McGee, K., Egnor, R., & Erb, L. (1995) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.124.4.391 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Self-citationFoote, A. L., & Crystal, J. D. (2007) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.01.061 · Cited by 272 · see citing works
Nelson, T. O. (1992) · Allyn and Bacon eBooks · Cited by 253 · see citing works
Sources of information in metamemory: Judgments of learning and feelings of knowing
Schwartz, B. L. (1994) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03213977 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Animal Psychophysics: the design and conduct of sensory experiments
Stebbins, W. C. (1970) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-4514-6 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
The uncertain response in humans and animals
Smith, J. D. (1997) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/s0010-0277(96)00726-3 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Self-citationMemory monitoring by animals and humans.
Smith, J. D., Shields, W. E., Allendoerfer, K. R., & Washburn, D. A. (1998) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.127.3.227 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Self-citationSmith, J. D., Beran, M. J., Redford, J. S., & Washburn, D. A. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.135.2.282 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Self-citationShields, W. E., Smith, J. D., & Washburn, D. A. (1997) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037//0096-3445.126.2.147 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Self-citationShields, W. E., Smith, J. D., & Washburn, D. A. (1997) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.126.2.147 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Self-citationDetecting metamemory in nonverbal subjects: A test with pigeons.
Inman, A. J., & Shettleworth, S. J. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal Behavior Processes · doi:10.1037/0097-7403.25.3.389 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Beran, M. J., Smith, J. D., Coutinho, M. V. C., Couchman, J. J., & Boomer, J. B. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal Behavior Processes · doi:10.1037/a0014626 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Self-citationDo orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) know when they do not remember?
Suda-King, C. (2007) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-007-0082-7 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Rhesus macaques (macaca mulatta) monitor uncertainty during numerosity judgments.
Beran, M. J., Smith, J. D., Redford, J. S., & Washburn, D. A. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal Behavior Processes · doi:10.1037/0097-7403.32.2.111 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Self-citationUncertainty Monitoring and Metacognition by Animals
Smith, J. D., & Washburn, D. A. (2005) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00327.x · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Self-citationConfidence judgments by humans and rhesus monkeys.
Shields, W. E., Smith, J. D., Guttmannova, K., & Washburn, D. A. (2005) · PubMed · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Self-citationRhesus monkeys (macaca mulatta) immediately generalize the uncertain response.
Washburn, D. A., Smith, J. D., & Shields, W. E. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal Behavior Processes · doi:10.1037/0097-7403.32.2.185 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Self-citationOn the Difficulty of Detecting Cognitive Uncertainty
Acredolo, C., & O’Connor, J. (2010) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000277055 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Self-Reflective Consciousness and the Projectable Self
Metcalfe, J., & Kober, H. (2005) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195161564.003.0002 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Does metacognition necessarily involve metarepresentation?
Proust, J. (2003) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x0336008x · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Smith JD 2007 Animal metacognition and consciousness In press Cleeremans A Bayne T Wilken P The Oxford Companion to Consciousness Oxford UK Oxford University Press
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Representation of Confidence Associated with a Decision by Neurons in the Parietal Cortex
Kiani, R., & Shadlen, M. N. (2009) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1169405 · Cited by 1,027 · see citing works
A computational framework for the study of confidence in humans and animals
Kepecs, A., & Mainen, Z. F. (2012) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2012.0037 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
The study of animal metacognition
Smith, J. D. (2009) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2009.06.009 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Self-citationEffects of cortical microstimulation on confidence in a perceptual decision
Fetsch, C. R., Kiani, R., Newsome, W. T., & Shadlen, M. N. (2014) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2014.07.011 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Linking metacognition and mindreading: Evidence from autism and dual-task investigations.
Nicholson, T., Williams, D. M., Lind, S. E., Grainger, C., & Carruthers, P. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/xge0000878 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
- Authors
- Smith, J. D., Beran, M. J., Couchman, J. J., & Coutinho, M. V. C.
- Affiliations
- University at Buffalo, State University of New York (US)
- Georgia State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Smith, J. David
- Venue
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
- Published
- 2008-08
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 679-691
- ISSN
- 1069-9384 (ISSN-L)
- 1531-5320
- PMC
- PMC4607312
- OpenAlex
- W2077512231
- Cited by
- 151
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 4.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD-38051, P01HD038051)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Primate Behavior and Ecology
- Keywords
- metacognition, uncertainty monitoring, associative processing, aversion
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Association Learning, Attention, Awareness, Cognition, Computer Simulation, Discrimination Learning, Generalization, Stimulus, Humans, Judgment, Reinforcement, Psychology, Reward, Species Specificity, Transfer, Psychology, Models, Statistical, Normal Distribution, Signal Detection, Psychological, Recognition, Psychology, Uncertainty
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
