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Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval
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Kornell and Bjork (Psychological science 19:585-592, 2008) found that interleaving exemplars of different categories enhanced inductive learning of the concepts based on those exemplars. They hypothesized that the benefit of mixing exemplars from different categories is that doing so highlights differences between the categories. Kang and Pashler (Applied cognitive psychology 26:97-103, 2012) obtained results consistent with this discriminative-contrast hypothesis: Interleaving enhanced inductive learning, but temporal spacing, which does not highlight category differences, did not. We further tested the discriminative-contrast hypothesis by examining the effects of interleaving and spacing, as well as their combined effects. In three experiments, using photographs of butterflies and birds as the stimuli, temporal spacing was harmful when it interrupted the juxtaposition of interleaved categories, even when total spacing was held constant, supporting the discriminative-contrast hypothesis. Temporal spacing also had value, however, when it did not interrupt discrimination processing.
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48 Own interpretation · 28 No full text of the sources · 21 Own result · 11 Own method · 4 Supported · 4 Sources not found · 3 Supported so far · 2 No basis given · 1 Partly supported · accuracy not yet measured
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In the paper
“The results were consistent with prior studies (Kang & Pashler, 2012;Wahlheim et al., 2011) in supporting the discriminative-contrast hypothesis: Interrupting discrimination processing, which was accomplished in the present experiment by inserting trivia questions between interleaved exemplars, impaired inductive learning, whereas interleaved order, the bottom row depicts four Fieldfare exemplars.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kang & Pashler, 2012 source
- Supportedcites Wahlheim et al., 2011 source
Experiment 1’s Results and discussion report that highlighting differences between bird families improved classification, consistent with the discrimination account; the General discussion likewise says presenting exemplars in pairs enhanced the benefit of spacing. The citing sentence identifies trivia questions as a manipulation in its own present experiment, not in Wahlheim et al. (LLM, conf=0.89)
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In the paper
“Wahlheim et al. (2011) also found benefits of simultaneous presentation of different categories for inductive learning.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Discriminative-contrast hypothesis
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Wahlheim et al. (2011) source
Experiment 1’s Method describes side-by-side presentation of birds from different families in the spaced condition. Its Results and discussion report that this arrangement enhanced the spacing advantage when participants classified novel birds, supporting the claim about inductive learning. (LLM, conf=0.89)
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- Supported
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In the paper
“items studied once and restudied after a delay are recalled better in the long term than are items studied and restudied in quick succession (for reviews, see Cepeda, Pashler, Vul, Wixted, & Rohrer, 2006;Dempster, 1988;Glenberg, 1979).”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Abstract
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Cepeda, Pashler, Vul, Wixted, & Rohrer, 2006 source
The General Discussion (p. 11) reports that items studied at two separated points were recalled better than items given the same study time nearly uninterrupted, including at retention intervals longer than a month. The Educational Implications section (p. 14) also reports better long-term retention when learning episodes were separated rather than concentrated in one session. (LLM, conf=0.94)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dempster, 1988 source
- Supportedcites Glenberg, 1979 source
The Tests of the Theory (p. 7) says that increasing the lag between presentations increases free recall and that many investigations have confirmed this pattern. The Results and Discussion (p. 13) report that delayed final recall followed the predicted increasing-lag pattern, supporting better later recall after spaced than closely successive presentations. (LLM, conf=0.91)
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In the paper
“More recently, Goldstone (1996) found better performance when categories alternated on 25 % of the trials than when they alternated on 75 % of the trials-that is, less-frequent alternation appeared to produce more learning.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Abstract
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Goldstone (1996) source
Experiment 2’s Method defines the infrequent-alternation group as having a .75 probability of repeating the previous category, meaning categories alternated on 25% of trials; the frequent group had a .25 probability of repetition, meaning 75% alternation. The Results report significantly higher categorization accuracy for the infrequent-alternation group. The claim’s “more learning” is a reasonable characterization of that performance difference. (LLM, conf=0.93)
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In the paper
“Importantly, however, even when interleaving is beneficial, it may seem counterproductive: The great majority of the participants in the present study, as well as those in prior studies (Kornell & Bjork, 2008;Kornell et al., 2010;Wahlheim et al., 2011;Zulkiply et al., 2012), judged that they had learned more effectively with blocked than with interleaved study.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Concluding comment
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kornell & Bjork, 2008 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kornell et al., 2010 source
- Partly supportedcites Wahlheim et al., 2011 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The paper reports that a majority in Kornell et al. (2010) judged massed study more effective on posttest questionnaires. But Wahlheim et al.’s own Experiment 1 found category-learning judgments higher for spaced than massed study, so it does not support the claim that its participants predominantly judged blocked study more effective. (LLM, conf=0.86)
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In the paper
“inserting groups of trivia questions between successive groups of exemplars-and, thus, separating exemplars from within a given species temporally-did not impair inductive learning significantly.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results
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In the paper
“Temporal spacing also had value, however, when it did not interrupt discrimination processing.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Abstract
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In the paper
“Correct performance on the final test, which is illustrated in Fig. 2, was significantly affected by participants' learning conditions, F(2, 99) 0 8.53, p < .001,η 2 p ¼ :15.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results
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In the paper
“A planned comparison of performance in the spaced versus contiguous conditions, limited to only the blocked condition, showed that spacing was beneficial for this type of presentation, t(112) 0 2.018, p < .05,d 0 .379,whereas Kang and Pashler (2012) had found no significant effect of spacing during blocked learning.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
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“Importantly, as is further indicated in Fig. 4, a significant interaction between presentation order (interleaved vs. blocked) and presentation mode (contiguous vs. spaced) was also obtained, F(1, 112) 0 10.909, p < .01,η 2 p ¼ :089 .”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
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“As predicted, performance in the interleaving condition was superior to that in the blocking condition when exemplars were presented contiguously (the means were .36 and .21,respectively).”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
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In the paper
“When trivia questions were used to space out the presentation of successive exemplars however, performance in the interleaving condition was not significantly different from that in the blocking condition (the means were .29 and .28,respectively).”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
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“The ratings were almost identical in the spaced condition, in which 67 % (38/57) of the participants rated blocking as more effective, z 0 2.38, p < .05.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
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In the paper
“In Experiment 1, presenting trivia questions between photographs of birds impaired learning, but only when doing so prevented the juxtaposition of exemplars from different categories.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > General discussion
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“In the contiguous condition, 65 % (37/ 57) of the participants favored blocking.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
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In the paper
“In Experiment 1, performance was not significantly different between the grouped-trivia condition and the contiguous (baseline) condition”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Experiment 3
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In the paper
“A binomial test using an approximation of the normal distribution showed this ratio to be significantly different from chance (i.e., from 50 %), z 0 2.12, p < .05.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
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In the paper
“As is shown in Fig. 5, the participants in the large-spacing condition performed significantly better (M 0 .42,SD 0 .198)than those in the small-spacing condition (M 0 .29,SD 0 .125),t(51) 0 2.74, p 0 .008,d 0 0.752.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results
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In the paper
“Thus, we further investigated the value of spacing in Experiment 3, obtaining results that showed that, when the presentation conditions for inductive learning were already interleaved, more spacing was superior to less spacing.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > General discussion
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In the paper
“Temporal spacing did not enhance learning for interleaved species.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
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“At the same time, spacing did significantly enhance learning in the blocked condition.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
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“In all of the recent studies demonstrating the benefits of spacing for inductive learning (with the exception of Vlach et al., 2008, who did not have an interleaved condition in addition to their spaced condition), however, interleavingmixing exemplars from different categories together-was what enhanced learning, rather than temporal spacing per se-a point to which we will return shortly.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Vlach et al., 2008 source
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“The grouped-trivia and alternating-trivia conditions, however, had comparable levels of interference, and a comparison between these two conditions reveals the importance of discriminative contrast in inductive learning.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results
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In the paper
“To the extent that trivia questions prevent discrimination processing across the board, the discriminativecontrast hypothesis does not predict a benefit of interleaving over blocking.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Experiment 2
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“Zulkiply and Burt (in press) also found a benefit of a contiguous interleaved study schedule as compared to a spaced blocked schedule.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Zulkiply and Burt (in press)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“Experiment 1 went beyond previous findings by holding spacing constant between the grouped-trivia and alternatingtrivia conditions and directly manipulating participants' ability to engage in discrimination processes in an interleaved presentation condition.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results
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“Kang and Pashler's (2012) findings are consistent with the view that the value of interleaving lies in promoting discrimination between categories.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Discriminative-contrast hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kang and Pashler (2012) source
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In the paper
“although a spacing effect did not occur, had it occurred, such a spacing effect would not have ruled out a role for discriminative contrast when examples are interleaved.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Discriminative-contrast hypothesis
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In the paper
“whereas Kang and Pashler (2012) had found no significant effect of spacing during blocked learning.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kang and Pashler (2012) source
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In the paper
“The grouped-trivia and alternating-trivia conditions, however, had comparable levels of interference, and a comparison between these two conditions reveals the importance of discriminative contrast in inductive learning.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results
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In the paper
“Kornell and Bjork (Psychological Science 19:585-592, 2008) found that interleaving exemplars of different categories enhanced inductive learning of the concepts based on those exemplars.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kornell and Bjork (2008) source
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In the paper
“Consistent with this idea, early studies showed that mixing exemplars from different categories resulted in poorer learning than did grouping exemplars of the same category (Kurtz & Hovland, 1956;Whitman & Garner, 1963).”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Abstract
What the sources say
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In the paper
“In Experiment 2, the optimal way to study was not to combine spacing and interleaving, because spacing seemed to interrupt discrimination processing.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Experiment 3
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In the paper
“When variation and spacing were combined, therefore, the effects on later recall were subadditive.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Appleton-Knapp et al. (2005) source
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In the paper
“suggesting that the amount of temporal spacing may not matter, provided that items are contiguously interleaved.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Experiment 3
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In the paper
“On the basis of Taylor and Rohrer's findings, it seems likely that a variety of learning tasks in the classroom might profit from interleaved-rather than blocked-schedules of practice or study.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Practical implications
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In the paper
“It could be argued that the main challenge for students in the Taylor and Rohrer experiment was to learn to discriminate among the categories of problems so that later, on a test, they could recognize a category of problem and retrieve the correct solution procedure.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Practical implications
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In the paper
“This finding replicates previous research demonstrating that the conditions that produce the most fluent processing during learning tend to result in the highest judgments of learning, even when the participants' actual performance shows quite the opposite pattern (e.g., Kornell & Bjork, 2008;Kornell et al., 2010;Simon & Bjork, 2001;Wahlheim et al., 2011;Zechmeister & Shaughnessy, 1980).”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
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In the paper
“Interleaving may have been effective, in part, because the test required discrimination, and interleaving promotes discrimination.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > General discussion
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In the paper
“The present results also suggest that temporal spacing can present a danger to inductive learning.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Practical implications
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In the paper
“The downside of temporal spacing appears to be that it can prevent between-category differentiation, as it did when exemplars were interleaved in Experiment 1.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > General discussion
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In the paper
“There may be situations in which it is advantageous to block such learning trials, as has been demonstrated using artificial laboratory tasks, particularly when it is difficult to discern similarities among the exemplars of a category.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Concluding comment
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This provides further support for the accounts that discrimination processes are more critical to inductive learning than is pure temporal spacing.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In that research, recall was facilitated when the formats of advertisements for the same product were varied, but only when the advertisements were shown close together.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Appleton-Knapp et al. (2005) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“In the case of naturalistic categories, however, the data thus far are fairly unanimous in demonstrating the benefits of interleaving over blocking (Kang & Pashler, 2012;Kornell & Bjork, 2008;Kornell et al., 2010;Taylor & Rohrer, 2010;Wahlheim et al., 2011;Zulkiply & Burt, in press;Zulkiply et al., 2012).”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Concluding comment
What the sources say
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This finding has a practical message: It is crucial, in inductive learning, to juxtapose examples of different categories.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Experiment 3
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In contrast, in the blocked condition, spacing was valuable for the reasons that have been used to explain spacing effects in noninductive learning-in particular, the value of studyphase retrieval (e.g., Thios & D'Agostino, 1976).”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Thios & D'Agostino, 1976 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, order effects did not seem to have an impact on our results.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, it is important to note that this benefit of spacing cannot be attributed to greater discrimination processing, because the degrees of juxtaposition did not vary across conditions.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, forgetting was not catastrophic in the blocked condition (where we believe that it was beneficial) because blocked items came from the same category, and thus, similar items could serve as reminders of each other.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Instead, this pattern of results is consistent with the study-phase retrieval account of the spacing effect.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In part, the value of spacing may depend on how spacing is achieved: Increasing the lag between interleaved items may be wiser than inserting gaps between inductive-learning trials.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Practical implications
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the interleaving condition, spacing did not provide a benefit in addition to interleaving because spacing prevented the beneficial discriminative contrast processing that otherwise would have occurred.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It seems that there is value in making it difficult to retrieve a prior instance of the same category, as long as retrieval does not become impossible.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > General discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but a similar dynamic may have been at work in the present experiment: When spacing and interleaving were combined, the participants became unable, when shown an exemplar of a given species, to remember the prior exemplars of that species.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, the results of Experiment 3 indicate that larger spacing can lead to better inductive learning than does smaller spacing.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, it would be easier to recall the previous butterfly photograph (after a trivia question has been presented) in the blocked condition than in the interleaved condition.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our present findings do, however, indicate that temporal spacing can provide a unique benefit to inductive learning, separate from the benefits of temporal juxtaposition.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This implication may extend well beyond visual categories of the type employed in the present studies.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Practical implications
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“This finding thus supported the discriminativecontrast hypothesis (Kang & Pashler, 2012;Kornell & Bjork, 2008).”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > General discussion
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 32
- Probably not a substantial claim. 20
- Not yet classified. 13
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Categories can be defined by both similarities and differences, and these two dimensions are not completely independent (see Goldstone, 1996, for a discussion of the degree to which these concepts are isolated vs. interrelated).”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > General discussion
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Goldstone, 1996 source
The Interrelated Concepts section describes categories in terms of both overlap among their members and differentiation from other categories. The CONCLUSION treats within-category and between-category similarity as related diagnostics on a continuum from isolated to interrelated concepts. Page numbers are not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Although the present pattern of results seems inconsistent with prior studies of inductive learning that have demonstrated a benefit of blocked practice (Goldstone, 1996;Kurtz & Hovland, 1956;Whitman & Garner, 1963), the conceptual framework just described may offer an explanation of these apparently divergent results.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > General discussion
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Goldstone, 1996 source
In Experiment 2, the paper compares frequently and infrequently alternated categories; infrequent alternation gives learners successive examples of the same category. The Results (page unavailable) state that categorization accuracy was greater with infrequent alternation, supporting the attributed benefit of blocked practice. The proposed explanation for the citing paper’s divergent results is the citing authors’ own framing, not a further finding attributed to Goldstone. (LLM, conf=0.92)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kurtz & Hovland, 1956 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Whitman & Garner, 1963 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: In the adopted framework, blocking facilitates within-category similarity processing, while interleaving facilitates between-category difference processing.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Another test, one that emphasized discrimination less and similarity more-such as an inference rather than a classification test (see Chin-Parker & Ross, 2002)-might have produced an advantage of blocking, or at least a smaller advantage of interleaving, even if the training conditions had been the same.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > General discussion
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Chin-Parker & Ross, 2002 source
The Tests section (page unavailable) explains that a classification test determines category membership and may be insensitive to within-category correlations. The Present Experiments section (page unavailable) likewise contrasts classification’s focus on category membership with inference’s focus on within-category information. The citation supports that test/task contrast; the possible effect on blocking versus interleaving is the citing authors’ own hypothetical extension. (LLM, conf=0.84)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, a Tukey-Kramer post-hoc test showed that accuracy was significantly lower in the alternating-trivia condition than in the other two conditions, for which performance did not differ significantly.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Adding both interleaving and spacing, however, did not lead to the best performance-interleaving alone did-so clearly, the benefits of spacing and interleaving were subadditive.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In three experiments, using photographs of butterflies and birds as the stimuli, temporal spacing was harmful when it interrupted the juxtaposition of interleaved categories, even when total spacing was held constant, supporting the discriminative-contrast hypothesis.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As is indicated in Fig. 4, a significant overall advantage of interleaving over blocking was obtained, F(1, 112) 0 12.34, p < .001,η 2 p ¼ :099:”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
Not yet classified.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Another planned comparison showed that in the absence of spacing, the induction learning produced by interleaving was superior to that produced by blocking, t(56) 0 4.794, p < .0001,d 0 0.678, replicating prior findings (e.g., Kang & Pashler, 2012;Kornell & Bjork, 2008).”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
What the sources say
Not yet classified.
In the paper
“Spacing provided no benefit when it interrupted juxtaposition between categories in Experiment 2, although spacing was beneficial in the blocked condition of Experiment 2-when it did not interrupt juxtaposition-contrary to the prior findings by Kang and Pashler.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > General discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Kang and Pashler
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Study block did not have a significant effect on performance, nor did it interact with spacing.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, although blocking was counterproductive in the contiguous condition and had almost no overall effect in the spaced condition, participants in both groups believed that blocking the exemplar presentations had helped them learn more effectively than did interleaving the exemplar presentations.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Spacing was beneficial both when exemplars were blocked in Experiment 2 and when they were interleaved in Experiment 3.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Practical implications
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“On the basis of this finding, they concluded that the value of interleaving lies in juxtaposing different categories, a process that they referred to as discriminative contrast.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Discriminative-contrast hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kang and Pashler (2012) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Consistent with this conclusion, they also found that simultaneous presentations of multiple paintings by the same artist did not benefit learning (Exp.1), whereas simultaneous presentations of multiple paintings by different artists were beneficial (Exp.2)—again, presumably, because they promoted discriminative contrast.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Discriminative-contrast hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kang and Pashler (2012) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“presenting one item at a time is different from presenting all items at oncedoing the latter places greater demands on working memory, and the discrimination processes that appear to be at work during a simultaneous presentation may not happen, or may not happen as effectively, during single presentations.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Discriminative-contrast hypothesis
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“They hypothesized that the benefit of mixing exemplars from different categories is that doing so highlights differences between the categories.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kornell and Bjork (2008) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Combined, these two planned comparisons demonstrated that, as compared to a baseline condition in which presentations were not interleaved or spaced, adding spacing or interleaving enhanced learning.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
Not yet classified.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results of Experiment 1 suggested that spacing, as implemented in the grouped-trivia condition, might have impaired performance slightly relative to the contiguous condition, but Experiment 1 did not include a noninterleaved condition of the type that would permit an assessment of the value of interleaving, relative to blocking, as a function of temporal spacing.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Experiment 2
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“They found that although interleaving led to a benefit in inductive learning, as compared to blocking, temporal spacing did not affect the benefit of interleaving.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > The present experiments
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Zulkiply and Burt (in press)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, the total spacing was held constant in these two conditions, but the alternating-trivia condition interrupted comparison processes (by placing trivia questions between the photos), whereas the grouped-trivia condition did not.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Experiment 1
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The basic logic was that if inserting trivia questions did not disrupt inductive learning, it would then be difficult to conclude that discrimination processes are responsible for the benefit of interleaving.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > The present experiments
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An unrelated task was inserted rather than having no filler task during the time delay so as to prevent rehearsal of the previously viewed image.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Experiment 1
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, between successive exemplars of a given species, exactly the same events transpired in the groupedtrivia and alternating-trivia conditions; that is, an average of eight trivia questions and seven photos intervened between successive exemplars of a given species in each condition.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Experiment 1
Not yet classified.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Additionally, interference and task were held constant across all three conditions in Experiment 3.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Kang and Pashler (Applied Cognitive Psychology 26:97-103, 2012) obtained results consistent with this discriminative-contrast hypothesis: Interleaving enhanced inductive learning, but temporal spacing, which does not highlight category differences, did not.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kang and Pashler (2012) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“They found a benefit of interleaving over blocking (replicating Kornell & Bjork, 2008), but no benefit of temporal spacing over blocking.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Discriminative-contrast hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kang and Pashler (2012) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This pattern of results is consistent with the discriminative-contrast hypothesis.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
Not yet classified.
In the paper
“Kornell and Bjork's (2008) participants rated blocking as being more effective than interleaving, despite having just completed a test on which they had performed better for categories learned under interleaved rather than under blocked conditions.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Experiment 2
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kornell and Bjork (2008) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Spacing also enhanced learning, however, when exemplars were blocked in Experiment 2 and when they were interleaved in Experiment 3, suggesting that multiple mechanisms may contribute to the value of distributed practice (spacing and interleaving) in inductive learning.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > General discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The foremost practical implication of the present findings is that successful inductive learning entails the juxtaposing of exemplars from different categories so as to promote discriminative contrast.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Practical implications
Not yet classified.
- Rests on an assumption: In inductive learning of natural categories, it is important to learn both within-category similarities and between-category differences.
In the paper
“That is, delay allows time for forgetting, making retrieval of previous exemplars from memory more difficult, but thereby enhancing learning when such retrievals are successful.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Thios & D'Agostino, 1976 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“When spacing and variation were combined, the participants were no longer able to retrieve the earlier version of the advertisement.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Appleton-Knapp et al. (2005) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Taylor and Rohrer (2010), for example, asked students to learn four kinds of mathematics problems using a task that could be categorized as requiring inductive learning, because participants never saw the same problem twice during the learning phase.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Practical implications
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Taylor and Rohrer (2010) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Spacing and interleaving have both been described as”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Practical implications
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bjork, 1994 source
Not yet classified.
In the paper
“Spacing also facilitated recall, but only when the exact same advertisement was repeated.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Appleton-Knapp et al. (2005) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Related to such considerations, the subadditivity of spacing and interleaving that we observed in the present experiment is analogous, perhaps, to the subadditivity of spacing and variation found by Appleton-Knapp, Bjork, and Wickens (2005) in participants' memory for advertisements of hypothetical products.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Appleton-Knapp, Bjork, and Wickens (2005) source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One potential criticism of Experiment 2 is that spacing was confounded with retention interval: For blocked categories, in particular, the interval between the last study trial and the final induction test was longer in the spaced than in the contiguous condition (this was not the case in the interleaved condition, in which all species were studied at both the beginning and end of the session).”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“As in the case of the results obtained by Appleton-Knapp et al. (2005), described earlier, the present results illustrate that two desirable difficulties are not always more desirable than one.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Practical implications
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Appleton-Knapp et al. (2005) source
Not yet classified.
In the paper
“Appleton-Knapp et al. reasoned that studyphase retrieval processes are crucial in supporting long-term retention:”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Appleton-Knapp et al. (2005) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the present research, similarities within butterfly species (as illustrated in Fig. 3) may have been relatively easy to process, even during interleaved practice.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > General discussion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When spacing interfered with discrimination processes, it impaired inductive learning.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Practical implications
Not yet classified.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The numbers of between-category juxtapositions were the same for both spacing conditions.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Materials
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Owing to such reminders, retrieval between trials should be better in the blocked than in the interleaved condition, so some forgetting would likely be valuable in the former condition.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the large-spacing condition, exemplars of a given species were juxtaposed next to exemplars of only three other species, in order to match the number of between-category juxtapositions that occurred in the small-spacing condition.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Materials
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Zulkiply and Burt (in press) found that blocking was more effective for learning highly discriminable categories, whereas interleaving was critical for inducing learning of low-discriminability categories.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > General discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Zulkiply and Burt (in press)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Taylor and Rohrer found that interleaving enhanced learning-as measured by the ability to solve new examples of each type of problem on a delayed test-even when the amount of spacing had been the same in the interleaved and blocked conditions.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Practical implications
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Taylor and Rohrer (2010) source
Not yet classified.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The bottom line is that interleaving is valuable for inductive learning, and that spacing can be valuable, too, if it does not interfere with discriminative contrast.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Practical implications
Not yet classified.
- Rests on an assumption: In inductive learning of natural categories, it is important to learn both within-category similarities and between-category differences.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“(Also, Exp. 1 had been designed to avoid such a confounding problem.)”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Temporal spacing is a natural consequence of interleaving, but the present results suggest that spacing can have both benefits and costs in inductive learning.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > General discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, an informal analysis of the previous experiments that showed a benefit for blocking indicates that the materials and procedures employed made identifying similarities within categories more difficult, whichaccording to the present framework-should result in blocking being more advantageous.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > General discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This manipulation allowed us to examine the effects of varying temporal spacing while holding juxtaposition, time on task, and time until test constant across all conditions.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Experiment 3
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Blocked practice may have, as the authors suggested, led to the”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Practical implications
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Taylor and Rohrer (2010) source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As a result, they found it difficult to recognize and remember commonalities within a given species, with their performance suffering accordingly.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the basis of the Experiment 1 and 2 results, we attributed the value of interleaving to enhanced discrimination processing, but the value may actually come from multiple sources.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two items from the same category (e.g., two Tippers) contain similar information and share the same category label, and thus, spacing would be expected to enhance learning in the blocked condition.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: When the same information is presented twice, spacing enhances learning, but no spacing effect occurs when two separate pieces of information are presented.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results obtained in the present research suggest that, to a great extent, the reason why interleaving enhances inductive learning is that the juxtaposing of exemplars of different categories that interleaving affords promotes the learning of differences.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > General discussion
Not yet classified.
- Rests on an assumption: In inductive learning of natural categories, it is important to learn both within-category similarities and between-category differences.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This set of findings can be seen as supporting the hypothesis that it is important to promote the processing of similarities within a category as well as of differences between categories.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > General discussion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Spacing does not have to interfere with discriminative contrast, however.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Practical implications
Not yet classified.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is important to remember that, as compared to blocking, interleaving increases the amount of spacing between exemplars, and, as is demonstrated by the results of Experiment 3, increases in spacing may play some role in the value of interleaving for inductive learning.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, two items from different categories contain far less similar information (and have different labels); thus, there would be little reason to expect a benefit of temporal spacing in the interleaved condition.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > Results and discussion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: When the same information is presented twice, spacing enhances learning, but no spacing effect occurs when two separate pieces of information are presented.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If so, any advantage of blocking for noting similarities may have been unneeded-only making an already easy process easier-whereas interleaving helped with the more difficult process of discriminating among species.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > General discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, the present findings lend strong support to the discriminativecontrast hypothesis, suggesting that interleaving is valuable in inductive learning because it allows people to grasp the differences between categories.”
§ Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval > General discussion
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: In inductive learning of natural categories, it is important to learn both within-category similarities and between-category differences.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Interleaving is the superior condition for inductive learning.
“Assuming, therefore, that interleaving is the superior condition for inductive learning, a question remains unanswered: When all items are contiguously interleaved, is more spacing better than less?”
The paper relies on this without support.
When the same information is presented twice, spacing enhances learning, but no spacing effect occurs when two separate pieces of information are presented.
“A second reason why the two claims are consistent is that when the same information is presented twice (as with repetition learning), spacing enhances learning, but no spacing effect occurs when two separate pieces of information are presented.”
The paper relies on this without support.
In inductive learning of natural categories, it is important to learn both within-category similarities and between-category differences.
“When people learn natural categories via induction, it is important to learn both the similarities among exemplars within a category and the differences between categories.”
The paper relies on this without support.
In the adopted framework, blocking facilitates within-category similarity processing, while interleaving facilitates between-category difference processing.
“In the conceptual framework that we have adopted, blocking facilitates processing of similarities within a category, whereas interleaving facilitates processing of differences between categories.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“These studies concluded that spacing is not the cause of the effect”
From A systematic review of interleaving as a concept learning strategy (2021) · cites this paper as Birnbaum et al., 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“spacing the items out-a feature which leads to improved learning in most situations-appears to be harmful to interleaving.”
From A systematic review of interleaving as a concept learning strategy (2021) · cites this paper as Birnbaum et al., 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“However, interleaving has now come to be distinguished from the spacing effect.”
From A systematic review of interleaving as a concept learning strategy (2021) · cites this paper as Birnbaum et al., 2013
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“However, as revealed by some of the studies reviewed (Kang and Pashler, 2012;Birnbaum et al., 2013), a gradual approach to presenting examples can be beneficial as long as contrast is maintained, allowing spacing and interleaving to work in concert (Birnbaum, 2013).”
From A systematic review of interleaving as a concept learning strategy (2021) · cites this paper as Birnbaum et al., 2013
In the citing paper
“In addition, participants learned about characters in an interleaved fashion, which is thought to be beneficial for generalization by increasing between-category discriminability 24,25.”
From Contingency of semantic generalization on episodic specificity varies across development (2021) · cites this paper as [24]
Citations
Cites
Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis.
Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354 · Cited by 1,888
(1994) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/4561.001.0001 · Cited by 1,770
Memory and Metamemory Considerations in the Training of Human Beings
Bjork, R. A. (1994) · Metacognition · doi:10.7551/mitpress/4561.003.0011 · Cited by 1,084
Self-citationLearning Concepts and Categories: Is Spacing the “Enemy of Induction”?
Kornell, N., & Bjork, R. A. (2008) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02127.x · Cited by 602
Self-citationComponent-levels theory of the effects of spacing of repetitions on recall and recognition
Glenberg, A. M. (1979) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03197590 · Cited by 444
The spacing effect: A case study in the failure to apply the results of psychological research.
Dempster, F. N. (1988) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.43.8.627 · Cited by 439
Nelson, T. O., & Narens, L. (1980) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(80)90266-2 · Cited by 352
The effects of interleaved practice
Taylor, K., & Rohrer, D. (2010) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1598 · Cited by 288
Learning Painting Styles: Spacing is Advantageous when it Promotes Discriminative Contrast
Kang, S. H. K., & Pashler, H. (2012) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1801 · Cited by 246
Metacognition in motor learning.
Simon, D. A., & Bjork, R. A. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.27.4.907 · Cited by 217
Self-citation
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Learning Versus Performance: An Integrative Review
Soderstrom, N. C., & Bjork, R. A. (2015) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691615569000 · Cited by 651
“A currently active issue, however, is whether the benefits of interleaving go beyond the benefits of the spacing such interleaving introduces (see, e.g., Birnbaum, Kornell, Bjork, & Bjork, 2013; Kang & Pashler, 2012).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSpaced Repetition Promotes Efficient and Effective Learning: Policy Implications for Instruction
Kang, S. H. K. (2016) · Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1177/2372732215624708 · Cited by 408
Teaching the science of learning
Weinstein, Y., Madan, C. R., & Sumeracki, M. A. (2018) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-017-0087-y · Cited by 288
Carvalho, P. F., & Goldstone, R. L. (2014) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-013-0371-0 · Cited by 175
“The results showed that only the interleaved condition resulted in better performance than did the blocked condition, thus providing evidence that greater temporal spacing of presentations is not the critical factor for the interleaved advantage (but see Birnbaum et al., 2013).”
Yan, V. X., Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0000177 · Cited by 152
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Birnbaum, M. S., Kornell, N., Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Williams College (US)
- Corresponding author
- Birnbaum, Monica S.
- Venue
- Memory & Cognition
- Published
- 2012-11-09
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 392-402
- ISSN
- 0090-502X (ISSN-L)
- 1532-5946
- OpenAlex
- W2084769389
- Cited by
- 278
- References
- 23
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 7
- FWCI
- 4.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Memory & Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Categorization, perception, and language
- Keywords
- interleaving, inductive learning, temporal spacing, category discrimination, retrieval, exemplar-based learning, concept learning
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Concept Formation, Discrimination, Psychological, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Middle Aged, Mental Recall, Time Factors, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-28, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-28 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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