How to measure working memory capacity in the change detection paradigm
Open accessAbstract
Although the measurement of working memory capacity is crucial to understanding working memory and its interaction with other cognitive faculties, there are inconsistencies in the literature on how to measure capacity. We address the measurement in the change detection paradigm, popularized by Luck and Vogel (Nature, 390, 279-281, 1997). Two measures for this task-from Pashler (Perception & Psychophysics, 44, 369-378, 1988) and Cowan (The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24, 87-114, 2001), respectively-have been used interchangeably, even though they may yield qualitatively different conclusions. We show that the choice between these two measures is not arbitrary. Although they are motivated by the same underlying discrete-slots working memory model, each is applicable only to a specific task; the two are never interchangeable. In the course of deriving these measures, we discuss subtle but consequential flaws in the underlying discrete-slots model. These flaws motivate revision in the modal model and capacity measures.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The single-probe recognition memory task can estimate with high precision the average number of memory items correctly retained by a participant for each set size (individual VWM capacity).
“Data provided by this task can estimate with a high degree of precision the average number of memory items correctly retained by a participant for each set size, namely, the individual’s VWM capacity.”
From Emotion-related impulsivity moderates the cognitive interference effect of smartphone availability on working memory (2019) · cites this paper as [52]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
Miller, G. A. (1956) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0043158 · Cited by 17,812 · see citing works
The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
Miller, G. A. (1994) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.101.2.343 · Cited by 17,469 · see citing works
The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity
Cowan, N. (2001) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x01003922 · Cited by 6,779 · see citing works
Self-citationThe capacity of visual working memory for features and conjunctions
Luck, S. J., & Vogel, E. K. (1997) · Nature · doi:10.1038/36846 · Cited by 4,053 · see citing works
Models of Working Memory: Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control
Miyake, A., & Shah, P. (1999) · Cited by 2,404 · see citing works
Signal detection theory and ROC analysis
Egan, J. P. (1975) · Academic Press eBooks · Cited by 1,656 · see citing works
The Cognitive Neuroscience of Working Memory
D'Esposito, M., & Postle, B. R. (2015) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015031 · Cited by 1,653 · see citing works
Discrete fixed-resolution representations in visual working memory
Zhang, W., & Luck, S. J. (2008) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature06860 · Cited by 1,624 · see citing works
Neural measures reveal individual differences in controlling access to working memory
Vogel, E. K., McCollough, A. W., & Machizawa, M. G. (2005) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature04171 · Cited by 1,301 · see citing works
On the capacity of attention: Its estimation and its role in working memory and cognitive aptitudes
Cowan, N., Elliott, E. M., Scott Saults, J., Morey, C. C., Mattox, S., Hismjatullina, A., & Conway, A. R. A. (2005) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2004.12.001 · Cited by 1,144 · see citing works
Self-citationDynamic Shifts of Limited Working Memory Resources in Human Vision
Bays, P. M., & Husain, M. (2008) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1158023 · Cited by 1,111 · see citing works
Familiarity and visual change detection
Pashler, H. (1988) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03210419 · Cited by 1,024 · see citing works
On the distinction between sensory storage and short-term visual memory
Phillips, W. A. (1974) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03203943 · Cited by 997 · see citing works
Dissociable neural mechanisms supporting visual short-term memory for objects
Yaoda Xu, A., & Chun, M. M. (2005) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature04262 · Cited by 931 · see citing works
(1999) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139174909 · Cited by 912 · see citing works
Binding in short-term visual memory.
Wheeler, M. E., & Treisman, A. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037//0096-3445.131.1.48 · Cited by 812 · see citing works
A detection theory account of change detection
Wilken, P., & Ma, W. J. (2004) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/4.12.11 · Cited by 775 · see citing works
Visual Working Memory Represents a Fixed Number of Items Regardless of Complexity
Awh, E., Barton, B., & Vogel, E. K. (2007) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01949.x · Cited by 709 · see citing works
Binding in short-term visual memory.
Wheeler, M. E., & Treisman, A. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.131.1.48 · Cited by 646 · see citing works
Neuronal synchrony reveals working memory networks and predicts individual memory capacity
Palva, J. M., Monto, S., Kulashekhar, S., & Palva, S. (2010) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0913113107 · Cited by 587 · see citing works
The time course of consolidation in visual working memory.
Vogel, E. K., Woodman, G. F., & Luck, S. J. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.32.6.1436 · Cited by 462 · see citing works
An assessment of fixed-capacity models of visual working memory
Rouder, J. N., Morey, R. D., Cowan, N., Zwilling, C. E., Morey, C. C., & Pratte, M. S. (2008) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0711295105 · Cited by 352 · see citing works
Self-citationLocation and binding in visual working memory
Treisman, A., & Zhang, W. (2006) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03195932 · Cited by 310 · see citing works
Scope of attention, control of attention, and intelligence in children and adults
Cowan, N., Fristoe, N. M., Elliott, E. M., Brunner, R. P., & Saults, J. S. (2006) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03195936 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
Self-citationSaults, J. S., & Cowan, N. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.136.4.663 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Self-citationLee, E.-Y., Cowan, N., Vogel, E. K., Rolan, T., Valle‐Inclán, F., & Hackley, S. A. (2010) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awq197 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Self-citationVisual memory needs categories
Olsson, H., & Poom, L. (2005) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0500810102 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
V4 Activity Predicts the Strength of Visual Short-Term Memory Representations
Sligte, I. G., Scholte, H. S., & Lamme, V. A. F. (2009) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0784-09.2009 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
The Cognitive Neuroscience of Working Memory
(2007) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198570394.001.0001 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Morey, C. C., Cowan, N., Morey, R. D., & Rouder, J. N. (2010) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-010-0031-4 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Self-citationA Bayesian hierarchical model for the measurement of working memory capacity
Morey, R. D. (2010) · Journal of Mathematical Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jmp.2010.08.008 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Self-citationKyllingsbæk, S., & Bundesen, C. (2009) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/pbr.16.6.1000 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Visual working memory capacity: from psychophysics and neurobiology to individual differences
Luck, S. J., & Vogel, E. K. (2013) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2013.06.006 · Cited by 1,088 · see citing works
Anxiety and working memory capacity: A meta-analysis and narrative review.
Moran, T. P. (2016) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000051 · Cited by 776 · see citing works
In search of the focus of attention in working memory: 13 years of the retro-cue effect
Souza, A. S., & Oberauer, K. (2016) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-016-1108-5 · Cited by 443 · see citing works
The mechanisms of working memory capacity: Primary memory, secondary memory, and attention control
Shipstead, Z., Lindsey, D. R. B., Marshall, R. L., & Engle, R. W. (2014) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2014.01.004 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Roux, F., Wibral, M., Mohr, H. M., Singer, W., & Uhlhaas, P. J. (2012) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0421-12.2012 · Cited by 322 · see citing works
Causal Evidence for a Role of Theta and Alpha Oscillations in the Control of Working Memory
Riddle, J., Scimeca, J. M., Cellier, D., Dhanani, S., & D’Esposito, M. (2020) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2020.02.065 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Working Memory Capacity and Fluid Intelligence: Maintenance and Disengagement
Shipstead, Z., Harrison, T. L., & Engle, R. W. (2016) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691616650647 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
Johnson, M. K., McMahon, R. P., Robinson, B. M., Harvey, A. N., Hahn, B., Leonard, C. J., Luck, S. J., & Gold, J. M. (2013) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/a0032060 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
The Contribution of Attentional Lapses to Individual Differences in Visual Working Memory Capacity
Adam, K. C. S., Mance, I., Fukuda, K., & Vogel, E. K. (2015) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00811 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Central and peripheral components of working memory storage
Cowan, N., Saults, J. S., & Blume, C. L. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/a0036814 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Self-citationModels of verbal working memory capacity: What does it take to make them work?
Cowan, N., Rouder, J. N., Blume, C. L., & Saults, J. S. (2012) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0027791 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Self-citationIndividual Differences and State-Dependent Responses in Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation
Hsu, T., Juan, C.-H., & Tseng, P. H. (2016) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2016.00643 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Training brain networks and states
Tang, Y., & Posner, M. I. (2014) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2014.04.002 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Effects of action video game training on visual working memory.
Blacker, K. J., Curby, K. M., Klobusicky, E., & Chein, J. M. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/a0037556 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Failure to filter: Anxious individuals show inefficient gating of threat from working memory
Stout, D. M., Shackman, A. J., & Larson, C. L. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00058 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Working memory capacity and the scope and control of attention
Shipstead, Z., Harrison, T. L., & Engle, R. W. (2015) · Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-015-0899-0 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Gross, S., & Flombaum, J. (2017) · Mind & Language · doi:10.1111/mila.12144 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Visual short-term memory always requires general attention
Morey, C. C., & Bieler, M. (2012) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-012-0313-z · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Self-citationAttention to attributes and objects in working memory.
Cowan, N., Blume, C. L., & Saults, J. S. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0029687 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Self-citationHsu, T., Tseng, P. H., Liang, W., Cheng, S.-K., & Juan, C.-H. (2014) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.04.069 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
When are fluid intelligence and working memory isomorphic and when are they not?
Chuderski, A. (2013) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.04.003 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Neural circuitry governing anxious individuals’ mis-allocation of working memory to threat
Stout, D. M., Shackman, A. J., Pedersen, W. S., Miskovich, T. A., & Larson, C. L. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-08443-7 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Generalizing parametric models by introducing trial-by-trial parameter variability: The case of TVA
Dyrholm, M., Kyllingsbæk, S., Espeseth, T., & Bundesen, C. (2011) · Journal of Mathematical Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jmp.2011.08.005 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Discrete-slots models of visual working-memory response times.
Donkin, C., Nosofsky, R. M., Gold, J. M., & Shiffrin, R. M. (2013) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0034247 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
The reliability and stability of visual working memory capacity
Xu, Z., Adam, K. C. S., Fang, X., & Vogel, E. K. (2017) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-017-0886-6 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Contralateral Delay Activity Tracks Fluctuations in Working Memory Performance
Adam, K. C. S., Robison, M. K., & Vogel, E. K. (2018) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01233 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Neural correlates of shape–color binding in visual working memory
Parra, M. A., Sala, S. D., Logie, R. H., & Morcom, A. M. (2013) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.09.036 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Zhou, Z., Zhu, H., Li, C., & Wang, J. (2014) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00288 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Compositional Inductive Biases in Function Learning
Schulz, E., Tenenbaum, J. B., Duvenaud, D., Speekenbrink, M., & Gershman, S. J. (2016) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2017.11.002 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
How do scientific views change? Notes from an extended adversarial collaboration
Cowan, N., Belletier, C., Doherty, J. M., Jaroslawska, A. J., Rhodes, S., Forsberg, A., Naveh-Benjamin, M., Barrouillet, P., Camos, V., & Logie, R. H. (2020) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691620906415 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Self-citationHahn, B., Robinson, B. M., Leonard, C. J., Luck, S. J., & Gold, J. M. (2018) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0913-18.2018 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
The scope and control of attention as separate aspects of working memory
Shipstead, Z., Redick, T. S., Hicks, K. L., & Engle, R. W. (2012) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2012.691519 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Toward the Neural Mechanisms of Reduced Working Memory Capacity in Schizophrenia
Leonard, C. J., Kaiser, S. T., Robinson, B. M., Kappenman, E. S., Hahn, B., Gold, J. M., & Luck, S. J. (2012) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhs148 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Shipstead, Z., & Engle, R. W. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0028467 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Ding, X., Gao, Z., & Shen, M. (2017) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797617707318 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Xie, W., & Zhang, W. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01188 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Tseng, P. H., Iu, K.-C., & Juan, C.-H. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-18449-w · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Theta-gamma phase-phase coupling during working memory maintenance in the human hippocampus
Chaieb, L., Leszczyński, M., Axmacher, N., Derner, M., Elger, C. E., & Fell, J. (2015) · Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17588928.2015.1058254 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Prolonged disengagement from attentional capture in normal aging.
Cashdollar, N. M., Fukuda, K., Bocklage, A., Aurtenetxe, S., Vogel, E. K., & Gazzaley, A. H. (2012) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0029899 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Brain Modularity Mediates the Relation between Task Complexity and Performance
Yue, Q., Martin, R. C., Fischer‐Baum, S., Ramos-Nuñez, A. I., Ye, F., & Deem, M. W. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01142 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Qi, S., Ding, C., & Li, H. (2013) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-013-0203-5 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Estimating working memory capacity for lists of nonverbal sounds
Li, D., Cowan, N., & Saults, J. S. (2012) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-012-0383-z · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationLudyga, S., Mücke, M., Leuenberger, R., Bruggisser, F., Pühse, U., Gerber, M., Mori, A. C., Keutler, C., Brotzmann, M., & Weber, P. (2022) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2022.103156 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Lin, P.-H., & Luck, S. J. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00042 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
The contribution of working memory to fluid reasoning: Capacity, control, or both?
Chuderski, A., & Necka, E. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0028465 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
An unpleasant emotional state reduces working memory capacity: electrophysiological evidence
Figueira, J. S. B., Oliveira, L., Pereira, M. G., Pacheco, L. B., Lobo, I., Ribeiro, G., & David, I. A. (2017) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsx030 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Canale, N., Vieno, A., Doro, M., Rosa Mineo, E., Marino, C., & Billieux, J. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-54911-7 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Individual Differences in Visual Working Memory Capacity
Fukuda, K., Woodman, G. F., & Vogel, E. K. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801371-7.00009-0 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Frost, A., Moussaoui, S., Kaur, J., Aziz, S., Fukuda, K., & Niemeier, M. (2021) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103398 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Vissers, M. E., van Driel, J., & Slagter, H. A. (2016) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01017 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Xie, W., & Zhang, W. (2017) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-017-0739-7 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Jaiswal, S., Tsai, S., Juan, C.-H., Liang, W., & Muggleton, N. G. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00627 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
The scope and control of attention: Sources of variance in working memory capacity
Chow, M., & Conway, A. R. A. (2015) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-014-0496-9 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Wasserman, T. H., & Wasserman, L. D. (2012) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2012.702025 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
A Design Space of Vision Science Methods for Visualization Research
Elliott, M., Nothelfer, C. E., Xiong, C., & Szafir, D. A. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2020.3029413 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Reassessing the Evidence for Capacity Limits in Neural Signals Related to Working Memory
Bays, P. M. (2017) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhx351 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Working memory capacity of biological movements predicts empathy traits
Gao, Z., Tian, Y., Shen, M., & Perry, A. (2015) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-015-0896-2 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Connectome-based neurofeedback: A pilot study to improve sustained attention
Scheinost, D., Hsu, T. W., Avery, E. W., Hampson, M., Constable, R. T., Chun, M. M., & Rosenberg, M. D. (2020) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116684 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
A brain-based general measure of attention
Yoo, K., Rosenberg, M. D., Kwon, Y. H., Lin, Q., Avery, E. W., Scheinost, D., Constable, R. T., & Chun, M. M. (2022) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-022-01301-1 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Rehearsing Biological Motion in Working Memory: An EEG Study
Gao, Z., Shlomo Bentin, A., & Shen, M. (2014) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00687 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Reduced representations capacity in visual working memory in trait anxiety
Qi, S., Chen, J., Hitchman, G., Zeng, Q., Ding, C., Li, H., & Hu, W. (2014) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2014.08.010 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Qualitative similarities in the visual short-term memory of pigeons and people
Gibson, B. M., Wasserman, E. A., & Luck, S. J. (2011) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-011-0132-7 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Cochrane, A., Simmering, V. R., & Green, C. S. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0221353 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Social exclusion weakens storage capacity and attentional filtering ability in visual working memory
Xu, M., Qiao, L., Qi, S., Li, Z., Diao, L., Fan, L., Zhang, L., & Yang, D. (2017) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsx139 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Simple and Complex Working Memory Tasks Allow Similar Benefits of Information Compression
Mathy, F., Chekaf, M., & Cowan, N. (2018) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.31 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationImpaired Contingent Attentional Capture Predicts Reduced Working Memory Capacity in Schizophrenia
Mayer, J. S., Fukuda, K., Vogel, E. K., & Park, S. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0048586 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Holding Biological Motion in Working Memory: An fMRI Study
Lu, X., Huang, J., Yi, Y., Shen, M., Weng, X., & Gao, Z. (2016) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2016.00251 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Liang, W., Tseng, P. H., Yeh, J., Huang, N. E., & Juan, C.-H. (2021) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2021.02.013 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Effects of strategy on visual working memory capacity
Bengson, J. J., & Luck, S. J. (2015) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-015-0891-7 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Reed, J. L., Gallagher, N. M., Sullivan, M., Callicott, J., & Green, A. E. (2017) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2017.01.001 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Grouping and binding in visual short-term memory.
Quinlan, P. T., & Cohen, D. J. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0027866 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Visual chunking as a strategy for spatial thinking in STEM
Stieff, M., Werner, S. M., DeSutter, D., Franconeri, S., & Hegarty, M. (2020) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-020-00217-6 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Sense, F., Morey, C. C., Prince, M., Heathcote, A., & Morey, R. D. (2016) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-016-0741-1 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationBeyond slots and resources: Grounding cognitive concepts in neural dynamics
Johnson, J. S., Simmering, V. R., & Buss, A. T. (2013) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-013-0596-9 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Hu, Z., Barkley, C. M., Marino, S. E., Wang, C., Rajan, A., Bo, K., Samuel, I. B. H., & Ding, M. (2019) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01461 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Williams, J. R., Robinson, M. M., Schurgin, M. W., Wixted, J. T., & Brady, T. F. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/xhp0001055 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
The reliability of estimating visual working memory capacity
Dai, M., Li, Y., Gan, S., & Du, F. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-39044-1 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Wang, S., Rajsic, J., & Woodman, G. F. (2019) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01446 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Short-term storage capacity for visual objects depends on expertise
Sørensen, T. A., & Kyllingsbæk, S. (2012) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.04.004 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Wang, S., Megla, E. E., & Woodman, G. F. (2020) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01637 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
The visual arrays task: Visual storage capacity or attention control?
Martin, J. D., Tsukahara, J. S., Draheim, C., Shipstead, Z., Mashburn, C. A., Vogel, E. K., & Engle, R. W. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0001048 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Broadway, J. M., Frank, M. J., & Cavanagh, J. F. (2018) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-018-0584-6 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Sghirripa, S., Graetz, L. J., Merkin, A., Rogasch, N. C., Semmler, J. G., & Goldsworthy, M. R. (2020) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.13719 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Gambarota, F., & Sessa, P. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02392 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Yangüez, M., Bediou, B., Chanal, J. P., & Bavelier, D. (2023) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000434 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Mall, J. T., Morey, C. C., Wolff, M. J., & Lehnert, F. (2014) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-013-0610-2 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationVisual working memory in early development: a developmental cognitive neuroscience perspective.
Buss, A., Ross-Sheehy, S., & Reynolds, G. D. (2018) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00087.2018 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Selection of multiple cued items is possible during visual short-term memory maintenance
Matsukura, M., & Vecera, S. P. (2015) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-015-0836-2 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Pailian, H., & Halberda, J. (2014) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-014-0492-0 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Precision requirements do not affect the allocation of visual working memory capacity
He, X., Zhang, W., Li, C., & Guo, C. (2015) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2015.01.028 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Induced negative arousal modulates the speed of visual working memory consolidation.
Xie, W., Sing, J. L. L., Martinez-Flores, A., & Zhang, W. (2022) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0001059 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
A two-stage search of visual working memory: investigating speed in the change-detection paradigm
Gilchrist, A. L., & Cowan, N. (2014) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-014-0704-5 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationBoran, E., Hilfiker, P., Stieglitz, L. H., Grünwald, T., Sarnthein, J., & Klaver, P. (2022) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119123 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Distinct neural substrates for visual short‐term memory of actions
Cai, Y., Urgolites, Z. J., Wood, J. N., Chen, C., Li, S., Chen, A., & Xue, G. (2018) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.24236 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Ward, R. T., Lotfi, S., Sallmann, H., Lee, H., & Larson, C. L. (2020) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.13625 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Ramos-Nuñez, A. I., Fischer‐Baum, S., Martin, R. C., Yue, Q., Ye, F., & Deem, M. W. (2017) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00420 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Working Memory: From Neural Activity to the Sentient Mind
Jaffe, R. J., & Constantinidis, C. (2021) · Comprehensive physiology · doi:10.1002/cphy.c210005 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Short‐Term and Working Memory in Childhood
Cowan, N. (2013) · The Wiley Handbook on the Development of Children's Memory · doi:10.1002/9781118597705.ch10 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationDetection of the number of changes in a display in working memory.
Cowan, N., Hardman, K. O., Saults, J. S., Blume, C. L., Clark, K. M., & Sunday, M. A. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000163 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationSchurgin, M. W., & Brady, T. F. (2019) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/19.5.3 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
- Authors
- Rouder, J. N., Morey, R. D., Morey, C. C., & Cowan, N.
- Affiliations
- University of Missouri System (US)
- University of Groningen (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Rouder, Jeffrey N.
- Venue
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
- Published
- 2011-02-19
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 324-330
- ISSN
- 1069-9384 (ISSN-L)
- 1531-5320
- PMC
- PMC3070885
- OpenAlex
- W1993017443
- Cited by
- 334
- References
- 32
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 20
- FWCI
- 24.30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by-nc
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- ORCA Online Research @Cardiff (Cardiff University) (submittedVersion)
- Edinburgh Research Explorer (University of Edinburgh) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01 HD-21338, R01HD021338)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
- Keywords
- working memory capacity, change detection, capacity measurement, modal model, visual working memory
- MeSH terms
- Aptitude, Humans, Memory, Short-Term, Models, Psychological, Psychological Tests, Signal Detection, Psychological
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review