How do scientific views change? Notes from an extended adversarial collaboration
Open accessAbstract
There are few examples of an extended adversarial collaboration, in which investigators committed to different theoretical views collaborate to test opposing predictions. Whereas previous adversarial collaborations have produced single research articles, here, we share our experience in programmatic, extended adversarial collaboration involving three laboratories in different countries with different theoretical views regarding working memory, the limited information retained in mind, serving ongoing thought and action. We have focused on short-term memory retention of items (letters) during a distracting task (arithmetic), and effects of aging on these tasks. Over several years, we have conducted and published joint research with preregistered predictions, methods, and analysis plans, with replication of each study across two laboratories concurrently. We argue that, although an adversarial collaboration will not usually induce senior researchers to abandon favored theoretical views and adopt opposing views, it will necessitate varieties of their views that are more similar to one another, in that they must account for a growing, common corpus of evidence. This approach promotes understanding of others' views and presents to the field research findings accepted as valid by researchers with opposing interpretations. We illustrate this process with our own research experiences and make recommendations applicable to diverse scientific areas.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The first stage of the adversarial collaborative process calls for participants to work together to form a clear understanding of one another's theoretical commitments and disagreements.
“The first stage of the adversarial collaborative process calls for participants to work together to form a clear understanding of one another's theoretical commitments and disagreements (Bateman et al., 2005; Cowan et al., 2020; Peters et al., 2025).”
From Integrated information and predictive processing theories of consciousness: An adversarial collaborative review (2026) · cites this paper as Cowan et al., 2020
Even in cases where data appear to decisively favour one set of predictions, proponents of the 'disconfirmed' hypothesis may ascribe unfavourable results to various auxiliary factors rather than concede the deficiency of their core theoretical claims.
“Even in cases where the data appear to decisively favour one set of predictions, proponents of the 'disconfirmed' hypothesis may ascribe unfavourable results to various auxiliary factors rather than concede the deficiency of their core theoretical claims”
From Integrated information and predictive processing theories of consciousness: An adversarial collaborative review (2026) · cites this paper as Cowan et al., 2020
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
<i>The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</i>
Kuhn, T. S., & Schlegel, R. (1963) · Physics Today · doi:10.1063/1.3050879 · Cited by 35,538 · see citing works
James, W. (1891) · Henry Holt and Company eBooks · doi:10.1037/11059-000 · Cited by 25,799 · see citing works
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60452-1 · Cited by 9,860 · see citing works
The Logic of Scientific Discovery
Bhaskar, R. (2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203090732-9 · Cited by 7,765 · see citing works
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
Hall, M. B., & Kuhn, T. S. (1963) · The American Historical Review · doi:10.2307/1847040 · Cited by 7,753 · see citing works
The Logic of Scientific Discovery.
Hutchison, T. W., & Popper, K. R. (1959) · Economica · doi:10.2307/2550489 · Cited by 7,628 · see citing works
Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises
Nickerson, R. S. (1998) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175 · Cited by 7,267 · see citing works
Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes
Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60422-3 · Cited by 7,216 · see citing works
The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity
Cowan, N. (2001) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x01003922 · Cited by 6,779 · see citing works
Self-citationAnderson, J. R. (2013) · doi:10.4324/9781315799438 · Cited by 6,761 · see citing works
Individual differences in working memory and reading
Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(80)90312-6 · Cited by 6,336 · see citing works
(1983) · Cited by 5,041 · see citing works
Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge.
HESSE, M. B., & Popper, K. R. (1965) · The Philosophical Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2218271 · Cited by 4,233 · see citing works
(1991) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.28-5376 · Cited by 4,217 · see citing works
Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge.
Hutchison, T. W., & Popper, K. R. (1964) · Economica · doi:10.2307/2551371 · Cited by 4,197 · see citing works
Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes
Lakatos, I. (1976) · Can Theories be Refuted? · doi:10.1007/978-94-010-1863-0_14 · Cited by 3,915 · see citing works
The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes: Philosophical Papers
Lakatos, I. (1978) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511621123 · Cited by 3,045 · see citing works
Short-term retention of individual verbal items.
Peterson, L., & Peterson, M. J. (1959) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0049234 · Cited by 2,939 · see citing works
Working memory span tasks: A methodological review and user’s guide
Conway, A. R. A., Kane, M. J., Bunting, M. F., Hambrick, D. Z., Wilhelm, O., & Engle, R. W. (2005) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196772 · Cited by 2,882 · see citing works
Chronometric explorations of mind
Posner, M. I. (1978) · Cited by 2,441 · see citing works
Working Memory, Thought, and Action
Baddeley, A. (2007) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198528012.001.0001 · Cited by 2,432 · see citing works
Cowan, N. (1988) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.104.2.163 · Cited by 1,787 · see citing works
Self-citationAttention and memory: an integrated framework
(1995) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.33-2415 · Cited by 1,652 · see citing works
An Embedded-Processes Model of Working Memory
Cowan, N. (1999) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139174909.006 · Cited by 1,521 · see citing works
Self-citationSome Tests of the Decay Theory of Immediate Memory
Brown, J. L. (1958) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470215808416249 · Cited by 1,442 · see citing works
Working Memory: The Multiple-Component Model
Baddeley, A. D., & Logie, R. H. (1999) · Models of Working Memory · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139174909.005 · Cited by 1,374 · cited 1× · see citing works
“These modules have been termed the phonological store and the visuospatial sketch pad, respectively (e.g., Baddeley, 1986; Baddeley & Logie, 1999).”
BackgroundSelf-citationOperational efficiency and the growth of short-term memory span
Case, R., Kurland, D. M., & Goldberg, J. S. (1982) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-0965(82)90054-6 · Cited by 1,182 · see citing works
The Soar Cognitive Architecture
Laird, J. E. (2012) · doi:10.7551/mitpress/7688.001.0001 · Cited by 1,108 · see citing works
Cowan, N. (2016) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315625560 · Cited by 942 · see citing works
Self-citationLogie, R. H. (2014) · doi:10.4324/9781315804743 · Cited by 933 · see citing works
Self-citationRalston, G. E. (1995) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.33-0596 · Cited by 862 · see citing works
YOU CAN'T PLAY 20 QUESTIONS WITH NATURE AND WIN: PROJECTIVE COMMENTS ON THE PAPERS OF THIS SYMPOSIUM
Newell, A. (1973) · Visual Information Processing · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-170150-5.50012-3 · Cited by 820 · cited 3× · see citing works
“In the field of cognitive psychology, Newell (1973) wrote that “you can’t play 20 questions with nature and win,” and the concern he had then still rings true.”
BackgroundThe many faces of working memory and short-term storage
Cowan, N. (2016) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-016-1191-6 · Cited by 625 · see citing works
Self-citationAttention and memory: An integrated framework
Otten, L. J. (1996) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0301-0511(96)05264-7 · Cited by 550 · see citing works
The Relationship Between Eyewitness Confidence and Identification Accuracy: A New Synthesis
Wixted, J. T., & Wells, G. L. (2017) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100616686966 · Cited by 467 · see citing works
Do frequency representations eliminate conjunction effects? An exercise in adversarial collaboration
Mellers, B., Hertwig, R., & Kahneman, D. (2001) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00350 · Cited by 448 · see citing works
Benchmarks for models of short-term and working memory.
Oberauer, K., Lewandowsky, S., Awh, E., Brown, G. D. A., Conway, A. R. A., Cowan, N., Donkin, C., Farrell, S., Hitch, G. J., Hurlstone, M. J., et al. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000153 · Cited by 441 · see citing works
Self-citationMyside Bias, Rational Thinking, and Intelligence
Stanovich, K. E., West, R. F., & Toplak, M. E. (2013) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721413480174 · Cited by 427 · see citing works
II—Criticism and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes
Lakatos, I. (1969) · Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society (Hardback) · doi:10.1093/aristotelian/69.1.149 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
How to measure working memory capacity in the change detection paradigm
Rouder, J. N., Morey, R. D., Morey, C. C., & Cowan, N. (2011) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-011-0055-3 · Cited by 334 · see citing works
Self-citationOn the law relating processing to storage in working memory.
Barrouillet, P., Portrat, S., & Camos, V. (2011) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0022324 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Self-citationOckham's Razors: A User's Manual
Sober, E. R. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781107705937 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Logie, R. H., Cocchini, G., Sala, S. D., & Baddeley, A. (2004) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.18.3.504 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
Self-citationLife-span development of visual working memory: When is feature binding difficult?
Cowan, N., Naveh‐Benjamin, M., Kilb, A., & Saults, J. S. (2006) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.6.1089 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Self-citationSpatial and Visual Working Memory: A Mental Workspace
Logie, R. H. (2003) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(03)01002-8 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Self-citationWorking memory: loss and reconstruction
(2015) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.189287 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
The Maltese cross: A new simplistic model for memory
Broadbent, D. E. (1984) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00026121 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Models of verbal working memory capacity: What does it take to make them work?
Cowan, N., Rouder, J. N., Blume, C. L., & Saults, J. S. (2012) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0027791 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Self-citationDecay Theory of Immediate Memory: From Brown (1958) to Today (2014)
Ricker, T. J., Vergauwe, E., & Cowan, N. (2014) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2014.914546 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Self-citationShort-term memory based on activated long-term memory: A review in response to Norris (2017).
Cowan, N. (2019) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000199 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Self-citationRECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN SHORT‐TERM MEMORY
Murdock, B. B. (1967) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1967.tb01099.x · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Recency Effects in Visual Memory
Broadbent, D. E., & Broadbent, M. (1981) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/14640748108400762 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Modeling working memory: a computational implementation of the Time-Based Resource-Sharing theory
Oberauer, K., & Lewandowsky, S. (2010) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-010-0020-6 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
From short-term store to multicomponent working memory: The role of the modal model
Baddeley, A., Hitch, G. J., & Allen, R. J. (2018) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-018-0878-5 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Attention to attributes and objects in working memory.
Cowan, N., Blume, C. L., & Saults, J. S. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0029687 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Self-citationThe effect of horizontal eye movements on free recall: A preregistered adversarial collaboration.
Matzke, D., Nieuwenhuis, S., van Rijn, H., Slagter, H. A., van der Molen, M. W., & Wagenmakers, E. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0000038 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Can psychology become a science?
Lilienfeld, S. O. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.024 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Gilchrist, A. L., Cowan, N., & Naveh‐Benjamin, M. (2008) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210802261124 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Self-citationRetiring the Central Executive
Logie, R. H. (2016) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2015.1136657 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Self-citationRehearsal in serial recall: An unworkable solution to the nonexistent problem of decay.
Lewandowsky, S., & Oberauer, K. (2015) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0039684 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Dual-task costs in working memory: An adversarial collaboration.
Doherty, J. M., Belletier, C., Rhodes, S., Graham, A. J., Barrouillet, P., Camos, V., Cowan, N., Naveh‐Benjamin, M., & Logie, R. H. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000668 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Self-citation(2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198842286.001.0001 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Cowan, N., Wood, N. L., Nugent, L. D., & Treisman, M. (1997) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00440.x · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Self-citationControl without Controllers: Toward a Distributed Neuroscience of Executive Control
Eisenreich, B. R., Akaishi, R., & Hayden, B. Y. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01139 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Rhodes, S., Graham, A. J., Doherty, J. M., Belletier, C., Naveh‐Benjamin, M., Cowan, N., Camos, V., Barrouillet, P., & Logie, R. H. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0000539 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationPerspectives on working memory: introduction to the special issue
Logie, R. H., & Cowan, N. (2015) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-015-0510-x · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citationA Working Memory System With Distributed Executive Control
Vandierendonck, A. (2016) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691615596790 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Reconfirmation of the Short-Term Storage Concept
Cowan, N., Wood, N. L., & Borne, D. N. (1994) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1994.tb00639.x · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationBarrouillet, P., & Camos, V. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315755854 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationAlzheimer’s disease, but not ageing or depression, affects dual-tasking
Kaschel, R., Logie, R. H., Kazén, M., & Sala, S. D. (2009) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-009-5210-7 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Self-citationConstraints in Cognitive Architectures
Taatgen, N., & Anderson, J. R. (2001) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816772.009 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Healthy aging and visual working memory: The effect of mixing feature and conjunction changes.
Rhodes, S., Parra, M. A., Cowan, N., & Logie, R. H. (2017) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000152 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationOlder adults do not notice their names: A new twist to a classic attention task.
Naveh‐Benjamin, M., Kilb, A., Maddox, G. B., Thomas, J., Fine, H. C., Chen, T., & Cowan, N. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000020 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationInformed guessing in change detection.
Rhodes, S., Cowan, N., Hardman, K. O., & Logie, R. H. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000495 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citationSelf-organization in the Nervous System
Willshaw, D. J. (2006) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012088566-4/50004-0 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Interaction effects on common measures of sensitivity: choice of measure, type I error, and power
Rhodes, S., Cowan, N., Parra, M., & Logie, R. (2018) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-018-1081-0 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationWorking memory benchmarks—A missed opportunity: Comment on Oberauer et al. (2018).
Vandierendonck, A. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000159 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Scientific advance and theory integration in working memory: Comment on Oberauer et al. (2018).
Logie, R. H. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000162 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationVesey, G. N. A. (1969) · Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society (Hardback) · doi:10.1093/aristotelian/69.1.133 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Baddeley AD (1986). Working memory Oxford Psychology Series #11. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Logie RH, Camos V, & Cowan N (Eds.). Working memory: State of the science. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Income and emotional well-being: A conflict resolved
Killingsworth, M. A., Kahneman, D., & Mellers, B. (2023) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2208661120 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
The Replication Crisis Has Led to Positive Structural, Procedural, and Community Changes
Korbmacher, M., Azevedo, F., Pennington, C. R., Hartmann, H., Pownall, M., Schmidt, K., Elsherif, M., Breznau, N., Robertson, O., Kalandadze, T., et al. (2023) · Communications Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44271-023-00003-2 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Comparing theories of consciousness: why it matters and how to do it
Del Pin, S. H., Skóra, Z., Sandberg, K., Overgaard, M., & Wierzchoń, M. (2021) · Neuroscience of Consciousness · doi:10.1093/nc/niab019 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
The search for the neural correlate of consciousness: Progress and challenges
Lepauvre, A., & Melloni, L. (2021) · Philosophy and the Mind Sciences · doi:10.33735/phimisci.2021.87 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Accelerating scientific progress through Bayesian adversarial collaboration
Corcoran, A. W., Hohwy, J., & Friston, K. J. (2023) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2023.08.027 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Negro, N. (2024) · Neuroscience of Consciousness · doi:10.1093/nc/niae012 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Follow‐up on the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency's (CIA) remote viewing experiments<sup>☆</sup>
Escolà‐Gascón, Á., Houran, J., Dagnall, N., Drinkwater, K., & Denovan, A. (2023) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.3026 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Indeed, we agree with Cowan et al.’s (2020) assertion that this approach might be the most productive way to change current scientific views on highly controversial topics.”
Generative adversarial collaborations: a new model of scientific discourse
Peters, B., Blohm, G., Haefner, R., Isik, L., Kriegeskorte, N., Lieberman, J. S., Ponce, C. R., Roig, G., & Peters, M. A. K. (2025) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2024.10.015 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Corcoran, A. W., Haun, A. M., Dorman, R., Tononi, G., Friston, K. J., & Pennartz, C. M. A. (2026) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2026.106742 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
- Authors
- Cowan, N., Belletier, C., Doherty, J. M., Jaroslawska, A. J., Rhodes, S., Forsberg, A., Naveh-Benjamin, M., Barrouillet, P., Camos, V., & Logie, R. H.
- Affiliations
- University of Missouri (US)
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
- University of Edinburgh (GB)
- School of Psychology, Queen’s University Belfast
- Rotman Research Institute (CA)
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri
- University of Geneva (CH)
- University of Fribourg (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Cowan, Nelson
- ORCID
- Venue
- Perspectives on Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2020-06-08
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 1011-1025
- ISSN
- 1745-6916 (ISSN-L)
- 1745-6924
- PMC
- PMC7334077
- OpenAlex
- W2998405591
- Cited by
- 89
- References
- 79
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 6
- FWCI
- 41.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Perspectives on Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Edinburgh Research Explorer (University of Edinburgh) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Research Portal (Queen's University Belfast) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council (ES/N010728/1)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › General Psychology › Academic and Historical Perspectives in Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychology Research and Bibliometrics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Interdisciplinary Research and Collaboration
- Keywords
- adversarial collaboration, scientific controversy, working memory, short-term memory retention, aging, preregistration
- MeSH terms
- Aging, Attention, Competitive Behavior, Cooperative Behavior, Humans, Interprofessional Relations, Memory, Short-Term, Psychological Theory, Retention, Psychology, Science, Multicenter Studies as Topic, Biomedical Research, Mathematical Concepts
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
