The DOI matches its Crossref record; 44 of the 45 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Development of an instrument for measuring different types of cognitive load
Open accessAbstract
According to cognitive load theory, instructions can impose three types of cognitive load on the learner: intrinsic load, extraneous load, and germane load. Proper measurement of the different types of cognitive load can help us understand why the effectiveness and efficiency of learning environments may differ as a function of instructional formats and learner characteristics. In this article, we present a ten-item instrument for the measurement of the three types of cognitive load. Principal component analysis on data from a lecture in statistics for PhD students (n = 56) in psychology and health sciences revealed a three-component solution, consistent with the types of load that the different items were intended to measure. This solution was confirmed by a confirmatory factor analysis of data from three lectures in statistics for different cohorts of bachelor students in the social and health sciences (ns = 171, 136, and 148), and received further support from a randomized experiment with university freshmen in the health sciences (n = 58).
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In the citing paper
“Thus, if the sum of these factors exceeds the student's available resources, cognitive overload occurs, hindering the processing of new information (Leppink et al., 2013).”
From Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of Neurodidactic Spaced Learning Strategies in Long-Term Memory (2026) · cites this paper as Leppink et al., 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Even if they had to adopt the items to fit the different domains, they found the three factors to be robust.”
From Development and Validation of Two Instruments Measuring Intrinsic, Extraneous, and Germane Cognitive Load (2017) · cites this paper as Leppink et al., 2013
In the citing paper
“However, no separate experiments were performed to verify whether the questionnaire could explicitly differentiate between types of cognitive load, which would be an important criterion for assessing validity.”
From Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Questionnaire to Measure Different Types of Cognitive Load (2023) · cites this paper as Leppink et al. (2013)
In the citing paper
“However, because of problems with the GCL scale (lack of correlation with learning performance), one GCL-related item was added in a further study to explicitly capture the effort required to cope with cognitive load.”
From Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Questionnaire to Measure Different Types of Cognitive Load (2023) · cites this paper as Leppink et al. (2013)
In the citing paper
“a principal component analysis (PCA) was preferred over an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) as it is less stringent in terms of assumptions (e.g., Leppink et al., 2013).”
From Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Questionnaire to Measure Different Types of Cognitive Load (2023) · cites this paper as Leppink et al., 2013
In the citing paper
“Since the previous PCA resulted in a three-component solution and previous cognitive load questionnaires also relied on a three-factor model (Dönmez et al., 2022;Klepsch et al., 2017;Leppink et al., 2013), the a priori hypothesis explicitly assumed that the observed ratings of the items loaded on three latent variables (factors).”
From Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Questionnaire to Measure Different Types of Cognitive Load (2023) · cites this paper as Leppink et al., 2013
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Citations
Cites
Development of NASA-TLX (Task Load Index): Results of Empirical and Theoretical Research
(1988) · Advances in Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)62386-9 · Cited by 15,003
Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design
Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1023/a:1022193728205 · Cited by 6,023
Self-citationCognitive Load Theory and Instructional Design: Recent Developments
Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3801_1 · Cited by 3,041
Self-citationEye Tracking: A comprehensive guide to methods and measures
Holmqvist, K., Nyström, M., Andersson, R., Dewhurst, R. J., Jarodzka, H. M., & van de Weijer, J. (2015) · Lund University Publications (Lund University) · Cited by 2,919
Cognitive Load Theory and the Format of Instruction
Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1991) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0804_2 · Cited by 2,894
Cognitive Load Measurement as a Means to Advance Cognitive Load Theory
Paas, F., Tuovinen, J. E., Tabbers, H., & Van Gerven, P. W. M. (2003) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3801_8 · Cited by 2,527
Self-citationCognitive Load Theory and Complex Learning: Recent Developments and Future Directions
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Sweller, J. (2005) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-005-3951-0 · Cited by 2,206
Paas, F. G. W. C. (1992) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.429 · Cited by 2,150
Self-citationElement Interactivity and Intrinsic, Extraneous, and Germane Cognitive Load
Sweller, J. (2010) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9128-5 · Cited by 2,020
Kalyuga, S., Ayres, P., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2003) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3801_4 · Cited by 1,927
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Items 1,001–1,002 of 1,002
Wang, G., Liu, Z. H., Xing, X., Hou, R., Tian, L., & Nie, S. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.107488
Aslan, M., Nilüfer, E., & Rathfısch, G. (2026) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app16147278
Metadata
- Authors
- Leppink, J., Paas, F., Van der Vleuten, C. P. M., Van Gog, T., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G.
- Affiliations
- Maastricht University (NL)
- University of Wollongong (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Leppink, Jimmie
- Venue
- Behavior Research Methods
- Published
- 2013-04-10
- Volume
- 45
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 1058-1072
- ISSN
- 1554-351X (ISSN-L)
- 1554-3528
- OpenAlex
- W1993729533
- Cited by
- 1,066
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 168 · 2025: 136 · 2024: 130 · 2023: 105 · 2022: 88 · 2021: 84 · 2020: 72 · 2019: 98 · 2018: 49 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 31 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 5
- FWCI
- 42.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Behavior Research Methods (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (publishedVersion)
- Research Online (University of Wollongong) (submittedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Education › Evaluation of Teaching Practices
- Keywords
- cognitive load, intrinsic cognitive load, extraneous load, germane load, instructional design, statistics instruction, university students, factor structure
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Analysis of Variance, Cognition, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Models, Psychological, Surveys and Questionnaires, Reproducibility of Results, Linear Models, Behavioral Research, Young Adult
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