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Development of an instrument for measuring different types of cognitive load
Open accessAbstract
According to cognitive load theory, instructions can impose three types of cognitive load on the learner: intrinsic load, extraneous load, and germane load. Proper measurement of the different types of cognitive load can help us understand why the effectiveness and efficiency of learning environments may differ as a function of instructional formats and learner characteristics. In this article, we present a ten-item instrument for the measurement of the three types of cognitive load. Principal component analysis on data from a lecture in statistics for PhD students (n = 56) in psychology and health sciences revealed a three-component solution, consistent with the types of load that the different items were intended to measure. This solution was confirmed by a confirmatory factor analysis of data from three lectures in statistics for different cohorts of bachelor students in the social and health sciences (ns = 171, 136, and 148), and received further support from a randomized experiment with university freshmen in the health sciences (n = 58).
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“Thus, if the sum of these factors exceeds the student's available resources, cognitive overload occurs, hindering the processing of new information (Leppink et al., 2013).”
From Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of Neurodidactic Spaced Learning Strategies in Long-Term Memory (2026) · cites this paper as Leppink et al., 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Even if they had to adopt the items to fit the different domains, they found the three factors to be robust.”
From Development and Validation of Two Instruments Measuring Intrinsic, Extraneous, and Germane Cognitive Load (2017) · cites this paper as Leppink et al., 2013
In the citing paper
“However, no separate experiments were performed to verify whether the questionnaire could explicitly differentiate between types of cognitive load, which would be an important criterion for assessing validity.”
From Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Questionnaire to Measure Different Types of Cognitive Load (2023) · cites this paper as Leppink et al. (2013)
In the citing paper
“However, because of problems with the GCL scale (lack of correlation with learning performance), one GCL-related item was added in a further study to explicitly capture the effort required to cope with cognitive load.”
From Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Questionnaire to Measure Different Types of Cognitive Load (2023) · cites this paper as Leppink et al. (2013)
In the citing paper
“a principal component analysis (PCA) was preferred over an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) as it is less stringent in terms of assumptions (e.g., Leppink et al., 2013).”
From Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Questionnaire to Measure Different Types of Cognitive Load (2023) · cites this paper as Leppink et al., 2013
In the citing paper
“Since the previous PCA resulted in a three-component solution and previous cognitive load questionnaires also relied on a three-factor model (Dönmez et al., 2022;Klepsch et al., 2017;Leppink et al., 2013), the a priori hypothesis explicitly assumed that the observed ratings of the items loaded on three latent variables (factors).”
From Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Questionnaire to Measure Different Types of Cognitive Load (2023) · cites this paper as Leppink et al., 2013
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Investigating the impact of a flipped programming course using the DT-CDIO approach
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Martin, A. J., Ginns, P., Burns, E. C., Kennett, R., Munro‐Smith, V., Collie, R. J., & Pearson, J. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.656994 · Cited by 27
Schneider, S., Krieglstein, F., Beege, M., & Rey, G. D. (2021) · Computers and Education Open · doi:10.1016/j.caeo.2021.100040 · Cited by 28
Shakirova, N., Berechikidze, I. A., & Gafiyatullina, E. A. (2023) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-12144-2 · Cited by 22
“Meanwhile, germane load indicates learning characteristics that benefit learning (Leppink et al., 2013).”
InfluentialGaly, É. (2017) · Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science · doi:10.1080/1463922x.2017.1381777 · Cited by 22
“…situation, we had to develop a tool considering all dimensions of this work situation, that is to say, a tool able to estimate all factors of mental workload for each mental load category (Debu e and van de Leemput 2014; Leppink et al. 2013) and available cognitive resources (Galy and M elan 2015).”
BackgroundMethodCognitive Load and Learning in the Study of Multiple Documents
Cerdán, R., Candel, C., & Leppink, J. (2018) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2018.00059 · Cited by 25
Self-citationRehman, S., Addas, A., Rehman, E., Khan, M. N., Shahiman, M. A., Rahman, M. A., & Wang, M. (2024) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104602 · Cited by 28
Zhang, S., Ding, S., Cui, W., Li, X., Wei, J. J., & Wu, Y. (2025) · Intensive and Critical Care Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.iccn.2024.103933 · Cited by 20
Huang, S.-K., & Chen, C. (2025) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.70094 · Cited by 32
Kastaun, M., Meier, M., Küchemann, S., & Kühn, J. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.703857 · Cited by 31
“Subjective instruments, such as the ones of Zu et al. (2020); Klepsch et al. (2017); Krell (2017); or Leppink et al. (2013), have the benefit that they can be easily used via paper-pencil questionnaires within the intervention.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialRevisiting the debate on germane cognitive load versus germane resources
Greenberg, K., & Zheng, R. Z. (2022) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2022.2159416 · Cited by 28
“Leppink et al. (2013) developed a self-reported cognitive load questionnaire which consists of 10 questions presented on an 11-point Likert scale.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialYiin, S., & Chern, C. (2023) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2023.105756 · Cited by 21
“This study developed a cognitive load scale for digital reading of pharmacology (CLSDR_P) based on the literature (Leppink et al., 2013; Korbach et al., 2018; Bakar et al., 2019).”
MethodGao, X., & Hew, K. F. (2023) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/07356331221133560 · Cited by 26
“The CLQ was adapted from subjective rating scales developed by Leppink et al. (2013, 2014).”
MethodMorrison, B. B., Decker, A., & Margulieux, L. E. (2016) · ACM Conference on International Computing Education Research (ICER) · doi:10.1145/2960310.2960330 · Cited by 22
“Intrinsic load is a combination of the innate difficulty of the material being learned as well as the learner's previous knowledge [21].”
Dual Modality Code Explanations for Novices
Morrison, B. B. (2017) · ACM Conference on International Computing Education Research (ICER) · doi:10.1145/3105726.3106191 · Cited by 23
“Intrinsic load (IL) is defined as a combination of the innate difficulty of the material being learned as well as the learner’s characteristics [28].”
BackgroundInfluentialThe relationship between social presence and cognitive load
Costley, J. (2019) · Interactive Technology and Smart Education · doi:10.1108/itse-12-2018-0107 · Cited by 29
Metadata
- Authors
- Leppink, J., Paas, F., Van der Vleuten, C. P. M., Van Gog, T., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G.
- Affiliations
- Maastricht University (NL)
- University of Wollongong (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Leppink, Jimmie
- Venue
- Behavior Research Methods
- Published
- 2013-04-10
- Volume
- 45
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 1058-1072
- ISSN
- 1554-351X (ISSN-L)
- 1554-3528
- OpenAlex
- W1993729533
- Cited by
- 1,066
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 168 · 2025: 136 · 2024: 130 · 2023: 105 · 2022: 88 · 2021: 84 · 2020: 72 · 2019: 98 · 2018: 49 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 31 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 5
- FWCI
- 42.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Behavior Research Methods (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (publishedVersion)
- Research Online (University of Wollongong) (submittedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Education › Evaluation of Teaching Practices
- Keywords
- cognitive load, intrinsic cognitive load, extraneous load, germane load, instructional design, statistics instruction, university students, factor structure
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Analysis of Variance, Cognition, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Models, Psychological, Surveys and Questionnaires, Reproducibility of Results, Linear Models, Behavioral Research, Young Adult
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