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Development of an instrument for measuring different types of cognitive load
Open accessAbstract
According to cognitive load theory, instructions can impose three types of cognitive load on the learner: intrinsic load, extraneous load, and germane load. Proper measurement of the different types of cognitive load can help us understand why the effectiveness and efficiency of learning environments may differ as a function of instructional formats and learner characteristics. In this article, we present a ten-item instrument for the measurement of the three types of cognitive load. Principal component analysis on data from a lecture in statistics for PhD students (n = 56) in psychology and health sciences revealed a three-component solution, consistent with the types of load that the different items were intended to measure. This solution was confirmed by a confirmatory factor analysis of data from three lectures in statistics for different cohorts of bachelor students in the social and health sciences (ns = 171, 136, and 148), and received further support from a randomized experiment with university freshmen in the health sciences (n = 58).
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“Thus, if the sum of these factors exceeds the student's available resources, cognitive overload occurs, hindering the processing of new information (Leppink et al., 2013).”
From Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of Neurodidactic Spaced Learning Strategies in Long-Term Memory (2026) · cites this paper as Leppink et al., 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Even if they had to adopt the items to fit the different domains, they found the three factors to be robust.”
From Development and Validation of Two Instruments Measuring Intrinsic, Extraneous, and Germane Cognitive Load (2017) · cites this paper as Leppink et al., 2013
In the citing paper
“However, no separate experiments were performed to verify whether the questionnaire could explicitly differentiate between types of cognitive load, which would be an important criterion for assessing validity.”
From Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Questionnaire to Measure Different Types of Cognitive Load (2023) · cites this paper as Leppink et al. (2013)
In the citing paper
“However, because of problems with the GCL scale (lack of correlation with learning performance), one GCL-related item was added in a further study to explicitly capture the effort required to cope with cognitive load.”
From Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Questionnaire to Measure Different Types of Cognitive Load (2023) · cites this paper as Leppink et al. (2013)
In the citing paper
“a principal component analysis (PCA) was preferred over an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) as it is less stringent in terms of assumptions (e.g., Leppink et al., 2013).”
From Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Questionnaire to Measure Different Types of Cognitive Load (2023) · cites this paper as Leppink et al., 2013
In the citing paper
“Since the previous PCA resulted in a three-component solution and previous cognitive load questionnaires also relied on a three-factor model (Dönmez et al., 2022;Klepsch et al., 2017;Leppink et al., 2013), the a priori hypothesis explicitly assumed that the observed ratings of the items loaded on three latent variables (factors).”
From Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Questionnaire to Measure Different Types of Cognitive Load (2023) · cites this paper as Leppink et al., 2013
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Citations
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“After completing the second block, we administered a cognitive load questionnaire taken from Leppink et al. (2013) and Leppink et al. (2014).”
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Interplay of Germane Load and Motivation during Math Problem Solving Using Worked Examples.
Gupta, U. (2019) · Cited by 4
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The effectiveness of learning by enacting and its mechanisms
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Comparing Visualizations to Help a Teacher Effectively Monitor Students in a VR Classroom
Rahman, Y., Kulshreshth, A. K., & Borst, C. W. (2023) · Proceedings - International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality, ISMAR · doi:10.1109/ismar59233.2023.00059 · Cited by 4
“From the training strategies’ perspective, research has been done on the cognitive load of the students using various techniques of classic classroom settings and with using learning management systems and how those can be measured [22, 24, 37].”
BackgroundLaskey, L., Keebler, J. R., Cairns, P. M., & Lopez, G. (2024) · International Journal of Aviation Aeronautics and Aerospace · doi:10.58940/2374-6793.1841 · Cited by 4
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“Several researchers have developed subjective self-report questionnaires that target the different types of cognitive load with multiple items (Klepsch et al., 2017; Krieglstein et al., 2023; Leppink et al., 2013, 2014).”
Holl, E. A., Huber, K., Pietschmann, D., & Liebold, B. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100637 · Cited by 6
Chen, C.-Y. (2025) · ACM Transactions on Computing Education · doi:10.1145/3732791 · Cited by 8
“This study used the 2014 version of Leppink et al. [20] rather than the 2013 version [19], because the updated instrument improved the accuracy of cognitive load assessment by including three additional mental effort items (see items 4, 8, and 13 in Table 1).”
Sobotta, N. (2016) · Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS) · doi:10.1109/hicss.2016.112 · Cited by 4
“A recent measurement instrument overcomes this lack by distinguishing three different types of cognitive load as latent variables: intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load [75, 76].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialA Case Study of Peer Instruction
Porter, L., & Simon, B. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.031 · Cited by 4
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“…formed a factor separate from IL in prior research, it could be that this factor represents something other than germane load such as ‘effort’, as suggested by Leppink et al when their measure of cognitive load types during classroom learning yielded three factors (Leppink et al., 2013, 2014).”
BackgroundResearch Methods in Multimedia Learning
Jarodzka, H. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108894333.006 · Cited by 5
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“The full three-factor instruments that operationalize the CLT triad directly—chiefly the Leppink et al. (2013) and Klepsch et al. (2017) scales—appeared in only six studies combined (Li et al., 2026; Huang et al., 2026).”
The effect of different question types on vicarious learning
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“The current study used the Leppink et al. (2013) cognitive load scale, which contains thirteen 11-point Likert type items.”
MethodGeberkidan, E. W., Michael, K., & Abraham, S. T. (2024) · International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/0020739x.2024.2392854 · Cited by 3
“Leppink et al. (2013) also introduced a subjective (direct) and objective (indirect) measure of cognitive load.”
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“Leppink et al. [41], in an empirical study, changed the order of representations formats (first text, then formula and first formula, then text, respectively) and noticed that the cognitive load was higher when the participants (university students) worked with the formula whether or not it came…”
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“The accompanying debate about how and when cognitive load should be measured is ongoing (Brünken et al., 2012; Klepsch et al., 2017 ; Krieglstein et al., 2022, 2023; Leppink et al., 2013; Lep-pink & van Merriënboer, 2015 ; Schmeck et al., 2015; van Gog et al., 2012).”
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“The Cognitive Load Scale compiled by Leppink et al. (2013) was used to assess learners ’ cognitive load.”
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“…development of various tests designed to measure presence (Witmer and Singer 1998 ; Usoh et al. 2000; Schwind et al. 2019; Schubert et al. 2001 ), cognitive load (Paas 1992 ; Leppink et al. 2013; Hart and Staveland 1988 ), and simulator sickness (Kennedy et al. 1993 ; Kim et al. 2018; Stone 2017 ).”
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“36,38 ECL, influenced by content delivery and instructional format, can be minimized to improve learning efficiency.”
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“Leppink et al. (2013) was the source for the germane cognitive load items used in this study.”
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“The cognitive load contained two dimensions (Leppink et al., 2013): mental load ( fi ve questions; the Cronbach ’ s Alpha is 0.863) and mental e ff ort (three questions; the Cronbach ’ s Alpha is 0.838).”
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“…models) (Rosenberg et al., 2020), their highly abstract nature can pose interpretive challenges to younger students who often are concrete thinkers (Leppink et al., 2013; Mayer, 2005) and may be unable to visualize the actual meteorological conditions behind the symbolic representations on the…”
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“The cognitive load test utilized a tool developed by Leppink et al. (2013), which enabled accurate measurement of each type of cognitive load.”
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“Next, to explore the students’ perceptions while using microlearning content, a 10-item survey instrument was modified based on [29]’s cognitive load questionnaire and [17]’s microlearning intervention feedback.”
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“The Cognitive Load Scale developed by Leppink et al. (2013) was used with 13 questions for 11-point scoring (0 ¼ complete non-compliance, 10 ¼ complete compliance), with higher scores indicating a higher level of germane cognitive loadfor the participants.”
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“For determining perceived cognitive load levels of the learners, Leppink et al.’s (2013) subjective rating scale of cognitive load types was used.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialFontaine, G., Cossette, S., Gagnon, M., Dubé, V., & Côté, J. (2020) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/18894 · Cited by 3
“Third, after two training sessions, we will use the French version of the Cognitive Load Index (CLI) [34] to measure participants’ cognitive load related to the e-learning programs.”
Assessing the use of cognitive load measures in medical education
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A Quantitative Model for Unifying Human Factors with Cognitive Load Theory
Sonnenfeld, N. A., & Keebler, J. R. (2016) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/1541931213601091 · Cited by 3
“…instructional design factors that support schema creation, learning, instructional task performance, and transfer (Ayers & van Gog, 2009; Benishek, 2014; Hollender et al., 2010; Keebler et al., 2010; Leppink et al., 2013; van Merrienboer, Kester, & Paas, 2006; Sweller et al., 1998; Sweller, 2010).”
BackgroundHsu, F.-H., Hsueh, Y.-T., Chang, W.-L., Lin, Y.-T. R., Lan, Y., & Chen, N. (2022) · IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT) · doi:10.1109/icalt55010.2022.00072 · Cited by 3
Mathematische Modellbildung und Videoanalyse zum Lernen der Newtonschen Dynamik im Vergleich
Weber, J. (2022) · Logos Verlag Berlin eBooks · doi:10.30819/5566 · Cited by 4
Factors affecting nursing staff use of nursing information systems in residential aged care homes
Galani, M. (2015) · Research Online (University of Wollongong) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.1.4364.6969 · Cited by 3
Using Mobile Devices to Augment Inquiry-Based Learning Processes with Multiple RepresentationsPreprint
Becker, S., Klein, P., Gößling, A., & Kühn, J. (2019) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1908.11281 · Cited by 3
Alyahya, S. M. (2021) · Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida) · Cited by 3
Dissecting anatomy education in the medical curriculum
Bergman, E. M. (2014) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20140630eb · Cited by 6
Cognitive load theory: researching and planning teaching to maximise learning
Szulewski, A., van Gog, T., Paas, F., & Sweller, J. (2022) · Researching Medical Education · doi:10.1002/9781119839446.ch27 · Cited by 3
Self-citationCognitive load in the reading of hipertexts
de Barranquilla, D., & Pernett, M. C. (2018) · Zona Próxima · doi:10.14482/zp.28.9505 · Cited by 2
Liew, T. W., Tan, S.-M., Gan, C. L., & Kew, S. N. (2023) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-34411-4_20 · Cited by 2
The Effect of Incremental Scaffolds in Experimentation on Cognitive Load
Hülsmann, M., Stiller, C., & Wilde, M. (2024) · Science Journal of Education · doi:10.11648/j.sjedu.20241201.11 · Cited by 2
Cmar, J. L., & Antonelli, K. B. (2024) · Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness · doi:10.1177/0145482x241234922 · Cited by 2
“The cognitive load instrument was the Multidimensional Cognitive Load Scale for Physical and Online Lectures (MCLS-POL; Andersen & Makransky, 2021), which is based on Leppink et al. ’ s (2013) Cognitive Load Scale.”
MethodAbu-Rayyash, H., & Alhawamdeh, S. (2024) · Translation Cognition & Behavior · doi:10.1075/tcb.24002.abu · Cited by 3
Tian, Y., Liu, Z., Liu, H., & Fang, M. (2025) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.13121 · Cited by 2
A working memory reversal effect on design principles? Evidence on pauses in video among children
Pinelli, M., & Cojean, S. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-025-13545-1 · Cited by 4
“While cognitive load is a significant framework in educational research (Klepsch et al., 2017), there are few adequate measures available, and those that exist are validated for adults (e.g., Klepsch et al., 2017; Leppink et al., 2013 ).”
Hahn, L., & Klein, P. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1544764 · Cited by 4
Çelik, H. Y., & Uğur, E. (2025) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-025-07504-0 · Cited by 4
“In the original study, Leppink et al. (2013) included error correlations between some items in the germane subdimension and stated that this could explain the effects of different teaching styles.”
InfluentialEhtesham-Ul-Haque, M., & Billah, S. M. (2025) · Designing Interactive Systems Conference · doi:10.1145/3715336.3735839 · Cited by 2
“When using identical tools and environments, programmers’ performance varies primarily with their programming skills [32].”
Leutner, D., & Biele, J. (2025) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-025-10067-7 · Cited by 4
“However, validated questionnaires exist to measure the three types of cognitive load (e.g., Klepsch et al., 2017; Krieglstein et al., 2023; Leppink et al., 2013).”
Hu, L., Lin, L., & Wang, M. (2025) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2025.2561031 · Cited by 3
“The non-significance could be due to the lack of sensitivity of the extraneous load measures for middle school students because the extraneous load items were adapted from Leppink et al. (2013), where the validation data were collected from university students.”
Wang, X., Lin, S., Chen, B., & Zhang, H. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105670 · Cited by 2
Leveraging the power and potential of feedback: Conceptual contributions and areas for expansion
Koenka, A. C., McManus, D. N., & Nicolai, K. D. (2025) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2025.102427 · Cited by 3
Uysal, D. (2025) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2025.102099 · Cited by 7
Metadata
- Authors
- Leppink, J., Paas, F., Van der Vleuten, C. P. M., Van Gog, T., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G.
- Affiliations
- Maastricht University (NL)
- University of Wollongong (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Leppink, Jimmie
- Venue
- Behavior Research Methods
- Published
- 2013-04-10
- Volume
- 45
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 1058-1072
- ISSN
- 1554-351X (ISSN-L)
- 1554-3528
- OpenAlex
- W1993729533
- Cited by
- 1,066
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 168 · 2025: 136 · 2024: 130 · 2023: 105 · 2022: 88 · 2021: 84 · 2020: 72 · 2019: 98 · 2018: 49 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 31 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 5
- FWCI
- 42.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Behavior Research Methods (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (publishedVersion)
- Research Online (University of Wollongong) (submittedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Education › Evaluation of Teaching Practices
- Keywords
- cognitive load, intrinsic cognitive load, extraneous load, germane load, instructional design, statistics instruction, university students, factor structure
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Analysis of Variance, Cognition, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Models, Psychological, Surveys and Questionnaires, Reproducibility of Results, Linear Models, Behavioral Research, Young Adult
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