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Development of an instrument for measuring different types of cognitive load
Open accessAbstract
According to cognitive load theory, instructions can impose three types of cognitive load on the learner: intrinsic load, extraneous load, and germane load. Proper measurement of the different types of cognitive load can help us understand why the effectiveness and efficiency of learning environments may differ as a function of instructional formats and learner characteristics. In this article, we present a ten-item instrument for the measurement of the three types of cognitive load. Principal component analysis on data from a lecture in statistics for PhD students (n = 56) in psychology and health sciences revealed a three-component solution, consistent with the types of load that the different items were intended to measure. This solution was confirmed by a confirmatory factor analysis of data from three lectures in statistics for different cohorts of bachelor students in the social and health sciences (ns = 171, 136, and 148), and received further support from a randomized experiment with university freshmen in the health sciences (n = 58).
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“Thus, if the sum of these factors exceeds the student's available resources, cognitive overload occurs, hindering the processing of new information (Leppink et al., 2013).”
From Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of Neurodidactic Spaced Learning Strategies in Long-Term Memory (2026) · cites this paper as Leppink et al., 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Even if they had to adopt the items to fit the different domains, they found the three factors to be robust.”
From Development and Validation of Two Instruments Measuring Intrinsic, Extraneous, and Germane Cognitive Load (2017) · cites this paper as Leppink et al., 2013
In the citing paper
“However, no separate experiments were performed to verify whether the questionnaire could explicitly differentiate between types of cognitive load, which would be an important criterion for assessing validity.”
From Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Questionnaire to Measure Different Types of Cognitive Load (2023) · cites this paper as Leppink et al. (2013)
In the citing paper
“However, because of problems with the GCL scale (lack of correlation with learning performance), one GCL-related item was added in a further study to explicitly capture the effort required to cope with cognitive load.”
From Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Questionnaire to Measure Different Types of Cognitive Load (2023) · cites this paper as Leppink et al. (2013)
In the citing paper
“a principal component analysis (PCA) was preferred over an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) as it is less stringent in terms of assumptions (e.g., Leppink et al., 2013).”
From Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Questionnaire to Measure Different Types of Cognitive Load (2023) · cites this paper as Leppink et al., 2013
In the citing paper
“Since the previous PCA resulted in a three-component solution and previous cognitive load questionnaires also relied on a three-factor model (Dönmez et al., 2022;Klepsch et al., 2017;Leppink et al., 2013), the a priori hypothesis explicitly assumed that the observed ratings of the items loaded on three latent variables (factors).”
From Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Questionnaire to Measure Different Types of Cognitive Load (2023) · cites this paper as Leppink et al., 2013
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“…to some extent, researchers have been empirically measuring germane load, as well as intrinsic load and extraneous load, in the survey and experimental research for the past decade (Cook et al., 2017; Klepsch et al., 2017; Leppink et al., 2013, 2014; Sewell et al., 2016; Zukic et al., 2016).”
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“In this study, the cognitive load scale developed by Leppink et al. (2013) was utilized, with adjustments made to the names of the learning activities on the scale to correspond with the activities in this specific study.”
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“cognitive effort, which aids in information transfer from short-term to long-term memory and ultimately contributes to learning (Kolfschoten, Lukosch, Verbraeck, Valentin, & Vreede, 2010; Leppink et al., 2013; Sweller et al., 1998).”
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“Cognitive Load Scale 3.3.2 The cognitive load scale (CLS) is a 10-item inventory developed and validated by Leppink et al. (2013) [45].”
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“To isolate cognitive load measures for each type of cognitive load (intrinsic, extraneous and germane), participants were asked to complete a novel emoji-based version of Leppink et al. (2013) after all videos had been watched.”
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“414 samples = 12 value = [11, 1] class = LOW False”
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“To measure extraneous load, three items were taken from Leppink et al. (2013).”
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“Second, we measured different aspects of cognitive load (Leppink et al., 2013): intrinsic (3 items, e.g., “The topic covered in the activity was very complex”; Cronbach’s α = 0.90), extraneous (3 items; e.g., “The instructions and explanations during the activity were very unclear”; Cronbach’s α =…”
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“Accordingly, Leppink et al. (2013) developed the CLI-10 to produce scores for IL, EL, and GL.”
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“Participants ’ mental e ff ort was measured by a nine-point subjective rating scale developed and validated by Leppink et al. (2013).”
Giridhar, M. P., & Panicker, V. V. (2023) · Sadhana · doi:10.1007/s12046-023-02078-3 · Cited by 5
“Leppink et al [42] has proposed a subjective rating technique for measuring all three types of cognitive load.”
BackgroundKienzler, J., Voss, T., & Wittwer, J. (2023) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-023-09627-7 · Cited by 11
Choi, S., Kang, S. O., Lee, K., Ju, H., & Song, J. (2024) · Contemporary Educational Technology · doi:10.30935/cedtech/14101 · Cited by 5
Chung, Y.-J., Hsu, C.-W., Chan, M.-H., & Cherng, F. (2024) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3613904.3642366 · Cited by 5
Bahari, A., Alavinia, P., & Mohammadi, M. (2024) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.13005 · Cited by 8
Designing Digital Interactive Instructions for Children's Construction Play
Christensen, A. L., & Biskjær, M. M. (2018) · European Conference on Cognitive Ergonomics · doi:10.1145/3232078.3232079 · Cited by 4
“This rotational view was used as many as 115 times in total (11.5 per participant) in contrast to the much less frequent use of zoom (18) and time-lapse (22).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialA Case Study of Qualitative Methods
Lewis, C. M. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.032 · Cited by 14
Deviatko, I. F., & Лебедев, Д. В. (2017) · Monitoring obŝestvennogo mneniâ: èkonomičeskie i socialʹnye peremeny · doi:10.14515/monitoring.2017.5.01 · Cited by 5
The cognitive load of listening activities of a cognitive-based listening instruction
Rahimi, M., & Sayyadi, M. (2019) · Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.17509/ijal.v9i2.20236 · Cited by 7
Exploiting Wearable Technologies to Measure and Predict Students’ Effort
Moissa, B., Bonnin, G., & Boyer, A. E. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-64301-4_19 · Cited by 5
Hsu, Y. (2020) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2020.1777168 · Cited by 5
“From a review of the literature on the measurement of cognitive load (Korbach et al., 2018; Leppink et al., 2013; Paas et al., 2003), we found that the measure indicator developed by Paas et al. (2003) is short and has been used as a general indicator of cognitive load in previous studies.”
MethodLernergebnisse und individuelle Prozesse des Physik-Lernens mit auditiven und visuellen Hinweisen
Hurzlmeier, M., Watzka, B., Hoyer, C., Girwidz, R., & Ertl, B. (2021) · Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1024/1010-0652/a000331 · Cited by 5
Agarwal, A., Graft, J., Schroeder, N. L., & Romine, W. L. (2021) · Signals · doi:10.3390/signals2040051 · Cited by 8
“In fact, some have stated that it may not be possible to measure the different types of cognitive load through self-report [36], although recent measures [37,38] have been argued to be worthy of further research [39].”
BackgroundMimicking tracing actions enhances young children's mathematical learning
Smyrnis, E., Ginns, P., & Bobis, J. (2022) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.4019 · Cited by 7
T-MOOC, cognitive load and performance: analysis of an experience
Almenara, J. C., Osuna, J. B., Castillo, J. J. G., & Palacios‐Rodríguez, A. (2023) · Revista Electrónica Interuniversitaria de Formación del Profesorado · doi:10.6018/reifop.542121 · Cited by 5
Using Augmented Reality in an Inquiry-Based Physics Laboratory Course
Kapp, S., Thees, M., Beil, F., Weatherby, T. S., Burde, J., Wilhelm, T. E., & Kühn, J. (2021) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-86439-2_10 · Cited by 5
Preventing interference: Reordering complexity in the learning of new concepts.
Ziegler, E., Edelsbrunner, P. A., & Star, J. R. (2019) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000347 · Cited by 6
Metadata
- Authors
- Leppink, J., Paas, F., Van der Vleuten, C. P. M., Van Gog, T., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G.
- Affiliations
- Maastricht University (NL)
- University of Wollongong (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Leppink, Jimmie
- Venue
- Behavior Research Methods
- Published
- 2013-04-10
- Volume
- 45
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 1058-1072
- ISSN
- 1554-351X (ISSN-L)
- 1554-3528
- OpenAlex
- W1993729533
- Cited by
- 1,066
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 168 · 2025: 136 · 2024: 130 · 2023: 105 · 2022: 88 · 2021: 84 · 2020: 72 · 2019: 98 · 2018: 49 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 31 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 5
- FWCI
- 42.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Behavior Research Methods (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (publishedVersion)
- Research Online (University of Wollongong) (submittedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Education › Evaluation of Teaching Practices
- Keywords
- cognitive load, intrinsic cognitive load, extraneous load, germane load, instructional design, statistics instruction, university students, factor structure
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Analysis of Variance, Cognition, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Models, Psychological, Surveys and Questionnaires, Reproducibility of Results, Linear Models, Behavioral Research, Young Adult
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