Human protein status modulates brain reward responses to food cues
Open accessAbstract
Background Protein is indispensable in the human diet, and its intake appears tightly regulated. The role of sensory attributes of foods in protein intake regulation is far from clear.Objective We investigated the effect of human protein status on neural responses to different food cues with the use of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The food cues varied by taste category (sweet compared with savory) and protein content (low compared with high). In addition, food preferences and intakes were measured.Design We used a randomized crossover design whereby 23 healthy women [mean ± SD age: 22 ± 2 y; mean ± SD body mass index (in kg/m(2)): 22.5 ± 1.8] followed two 16-d fully controlled dietary interventions involving consumption of either a low-protein diet (0.6 g protein · kg body weight(-1) · d(-1), ~7% of energy derived from protein, approximately half the normal protein intake) or a high-protein diet (2.2 g protein · kg body weight(-1) · d(-1), ~25% of energy, approximately twice the normal intake). On the last day of the interventions, blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) responses to odor and visual food cues were measured by using fMRI. The 2 interventions were followed by a 1-d ad libitum phase, during which a large array of food items was available and preference and intake were measured.Results When exposed to food cues (relative to the control condition), the BOLD response was higher in reward-related areas (orbitofrontal cortex, striatum) in a low-protein state than in a high-protein state. Specifically, BOLD was higher in the inferior orbitofrontal cortex in response to savory food cues. In contrast, the protein content of the food cues did not modulate the BOLD response. A low protein state also increased preferences for savory food cues and increased protein intake in the ad libitum phase as compared with a high-protein state.Conclusions Protein status modulates brain responses in reward regions to savory food cues. These novel findings suggest that dietary protein status affects taste category preferences, which could play an important role in the regulation of protein intake in humans. This trial was registered at www.trialregister.nl/trialreg/admin/rctview.asp?TC=3288 as NTR3288.
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Similar observations of protein-specific selection have been made in humans.
“Similar observations have been made in humans”
From FGF21 and the physiological regulation of macronutrient preference (2020) · cites this paper as [102]
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Fassi-Kadji, J. B., Jatsa, H. B., Femoe, U. M., Greigert, V., Brunet, J., Cannet, C., Kenfack, C. M., Feussom, N. G., Nkondo, E. T., Abou‐Bacar, A., et al. (2022) · PLoS neglected tropical diseases · doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0010249 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Since the bromatological characteristics of the low-protein diet and the standard one revealed that the total metabolizable energy was similar, it can be understandable that the low-protein diet used to feed healthy mice has supplied food intake without altering energy expenditure, body fat, lean mass, and body weight…”
BackgroundWu, C.-T., Magaña, D. G., Roshgadol, J., Tian, L., & Ryan, K. K. (2024) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2024.107673 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Buckley, C. M., Stuijfzand, B. G., & Rogers, P. J. (2018) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.03.009 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Impact of Dietary Protein and Gender on Food Reinforcement
Casperson, S. L., & Roemmich, J. N. (2017) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu9090957 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Hou, Y., Lai, C., Wu, Y., & Yang, S. (2016) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000003956 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Intestinal gluconeogenesis and protein diet: future directions
Gautier‐Stein, A., Rajas, F., & Mithieux, G. (2020) · Proceedings of The Nutrition Society · doi:10.1017/s0029665120007922 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Consistently, high-protein diet was shown to modulate the reactivity of corticolimbic brain area (hippocampus, orbitofrontal cortex and striatum) in response to food cues in women((48,49)).”
BackgroundRuddick-Collins, L. C., Byrne, N. M., & King, N. A. (2018) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.11.015 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Long, J. D., Dodd, S. L., Doumit, R., Boswell, C. A., O’Boyle, M. W., & Rogers, T. J. (2020) · Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing · doi:10.1111/wvn.12424 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Protein Decoys, Alcohol, and Energy Intake: Testing a Mechanistic‐Ecological Model
Grech, A. L., Simpson, S. J., & Raubenheimer, D. (2026) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.70138 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
HEDONİK AÇLIK VE MAKRO BESİN ÖĞELERİ İLE İLİŞKİSİ
Aydoğdu, G. S., & Köksal, E. (2021) · Gazi Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.52881/gsbdergi.958923 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Ecology, Protein Leverage, and Public Health
Raubenheimer, D., & Simpson, S. J. (2022) · doi:10.1002/9781119695257.ch6 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Effects of repeated visual and olfactory exposure to sweet and sour cues on appetite and food liking
Cho, H.-Y., & Hong, J.-H. (2025) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2025.105825 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Context matters: Neural processing of food-flavored e-cigarettes and the influence of smoking
Hellmich, I. M., Krüsemann, E. J. Z., van der Hart, J. R. H., Smeets, P. A. M., Talhout, R., & Boesveldt, S. (2024) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2024.108754 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Leon, A. D., Roemmich, J. N., & Casperson, S. L. (2024) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.tjnut.2024.02.009 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Perceptual differences in olfactory fat discrimination are not detected in neural activation
Pirc, M., Krale, C., Smeets, P. A. M., & Boesveldt, S. (2025) · Chemical Senses · doi:10.1093/chemse/bjaf007 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“It is plausible that brain activation differences between food odors varying in fat might become more apparent in a depleted state, such as with protein (Griffioen-Roose et al. 2014).”
How Micronutrient Status May Affect Eating Behavior—Hypothesis and Perspectives
Alanazi, W. L. K., Allen, C., Geary, N., Marsh, A., Brunstrom, J. M., Rogers, P. J., Mattes, R. D., Hr, B., Provenza, F. D., Leng, G., et al. (2026) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu18040594 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The control of goal-directed actions by nutrient-specific appetites and rewards
Roy, D. J., Burton, T. J., & Balleine, B. W. (2026) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2026.108584 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Macronutrient mixtures and interactions in health and disease
Simpson, S. J., Couteur, D. G. L., Small, L., Brandon, A. E., & Raubenheimer, D. (2026) · Nature Reviews Endocrinology · doi:10.1038/s41574-026-01266-5 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“For example, behavioural and brain imaging studies have shown that, when humans are protein deprived but not energy deprived, savoury (umami) flavour cues increase in salience 21,29,30 .”
Horgan, A., Palmbach, G. R., Jordan, J. M., Callahan, H. S., Meeuws, K. E., Weigle, D. S., Kratz, M., & Purnell, J. Q. (2022) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-022-03040-5 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Finally, it is possible that dietary preconditioning with a high-protein, low-fat diet influenced participant’s sensory perceptions and food preference for the SSM [29, 30], although we could not formally examine this possibility in our analyses.”
BackgroundCognitive and sensory enhanced satiety
McCrickerd, K. (2017) · doi:10.1002/9781119044970.ch6 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Okada, M., Pehlivan, M., Miskovic‐Wheatley, J., Barakat, S., Griffiths, K. R., Touyz, S. W., Simpson, S. J., Maguire, S., & Holmes, A. J. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3127132/v1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Wu, C.-T., Magaña, D. G., Roshgadol, J., Tian, L., & Ryan, K. K. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.06.21.600074 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Building upon evidence that protein context impacts the desire for sweet vs. savory foods in humans [16,70], we found the motivation to consume sucrose was diminished by chronic LPHC feeding in mice using the conditioned place preference test.”
Appetite: Inhibiting Properties of Proteins
Gabriel, A. S., & Tomé, D. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-13126-9_12
Food reward from a behavioural and (neuro)physiological perspective
de Bruijn, S. E. M. (2017) · doi:10.18174/421669
Prevention of diabetes through lifestyle intervention
Drummen, M. (2019) · doi:10.26481/dis.20190124md
Olfactory Influences on Human Feeding Behaviour, from Sense to Satiety
Taşar, S., Cingi, C., & Vicheva, D. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-33278-4_35
Protein Restriction in Aging and Disease
Brandhorst, S. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-49622-6_2
Ballestero‐Arnau, M., Rodríguez‐Herreros, B., Moreno-Sánchez, M., & Toni Cunillera, B. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.06.05.658045
“…from randomized controlled trials (Campbell et al., 2016; Gosby et al., 2011; Hall et al., 2019; Kohanmoo et al., 2020) and neuroimaging studies (Griffioen-Roose et al., 2014; Leidy et al., 2011) , supporting evidence at the cognitive level of specific attentional prioritized protein stimuli is…”
Moore, H., Siroux, J., Miguet, M., Fillon, A., Masurier, J., Finlayson, G., Pereira, B., & Thivel, D. (2025) · Pediatric Obesity · doi:10.1111/ijpo.70029
“53 Therefore, sweet preference may exacerbate FFM loss, as dietary protein is essential for the maintenance of FFM, particularly skeletal muscle.”
Treatment Protocols for Reward Eating: A Scoping Review
da Silva, T. L., Andrade, R., Leal, M. E. M., & Feóli, A. M. P. (2025) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuaf130
Gourru, M., Blanchet, R., Dadillon, T., Brunstrom, J. M., Flynn, A. N., Darcel, N., Rampin, O., Champeil‐Potokar, G., Denis, I., & Davidenko, O. (2025) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2025.108274
Food Macronutrient Composition Influences Attentional Bias Toward Food Cues
Ballestero‐Arnau, M., Rodríguez‐Herreros, B., Moreno‐Sánchez, M., & Toni Cunillera, B. (2025) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.70181
Neuro-metabolic pathways of high-protein meal reducing food cravingPreprint
Pu, M., Janet, R., Artigas, S. O., Ulrich, A., Tardu, J., Mohr, P. N. C., Wilms, B., Koletzko, B. V., Meyhoefer, S. M., & Park, S. Q. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.01.06.697861
“Moreover, while our study focused on the acute effects of a single high-protein/carb meal, a previous study examined the chronic effects of a low-protein diet over 16 days and reported enhanced reward-related neural activation in response to savory food cues 52 .”
Leon, A. D., Roemmich, J. N., & Casperson, S. L. (2026) · Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1016/j.jand.2026.156391
Reviewing Physiological Measures of Implicit Consumer Response to Food
Viadel, A., Laguna, L., & Tárrega, A. (2026) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods15193551
- Authors
- Griffioen-Roose, S., Smeets, P. A., van den Heuvel, E., Boesveldt, S., Finlayson, G., & de Graaf, C.
- Affiliations
- University of Leeds (GB)
- Venue
- The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-07
- Volume
- 100
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 113-122
- ISSN
- 0002-9165 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2169898453
- Cited by
- 87
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 2
- FWCI
- 4.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Socio-Environmental Systems Modeling (acceptedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Technology Foundation STW (07438)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Keywords
- food reward, food cues, low-protein diet, high-protein diet, orbitofrontal cortex, striatum, sweet taste, food preferences
- MeSH terms
- Body Weight, Brain, Energy Intake, Choice Behavior, Cues, Dietary Carbohydrates, Dietary Fats, Dietary Proteins, Feeding Behavior, Female, Food Preferences, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Neurons, Nutritional Status, Reward, Taste, Body Mass Index, Cross-Over Studies, Diet, Protein-Restricted, Young Adult, Healthy Volunteers
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