Neuroinflammation, microglia and implications for anti-inflammatory treatment in Alzheimer’s disease
Open accessAbstract
Neuroinflammation has been implicated in the pathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD) for decades. Still it has not been fully understood when and how inflammation arises in the course of AD. Whether inflammation is an underling cause or a resulting condition in AD remains unresolved. Mounting evidence indicates that microglial activation contributes to neuronal damage in neurodegenerative diseases. However, also beneficial aspects of microglial activation have been identified. The purpose of this review is to highlight new insights into the detrimental and beneficial role of neuroinflammation in AD. It is our intention to focus on newer controversies in the field of microglia activation. Precisely, we want to shed light on whether neuroinflammation is associated to brain tissue damage and functional impairment or is there also a damage limiting activity. In regard to this, we discuss the limitations and the advantages of anti-inflammatory treatment options and identify what future implications might result from this underling neuroinflammation for AD therapy.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The clinical translation of broad anti-inflammatory approaches has been disappointing, partly because inflammation in Alzheimer's disease is not a single harmful process that can simply be turned off.
“However, the clinical translation of broad anti-inflammatory approaches has been disappointing, partly because inflammation in Alzheimer’s disease is not a single harmful process that can simply be turned off [48,49].”
From Lymphoid-like Suppressive Microglia in Alzheimer’s Disease: A New Neuroimmune Regulatory Axis? (2026) · cites this paper as [49]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Microglia-mediated neurotoxicity: uncovering the molecular mechanisms
Block, M. L., Zecca, L., & Hong, J.-S. (2007) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn2038 · Cited by 4,110 · see citing works
A subset of NSAIDs lower amyloidogenic Aβ42 independently of cyclooxygenase activity
Weggen, S., Eriksen, J. L., Das, P., Sagi, S. A., Wang, R., Pietrzik, C. U., Findlay, K. A., Smith, T. E., Murphy, M. P., Bulter, T., et al. (2001) · Nature · doi:10.1038/35102591 · Cited by 1,388 · see citing works
Ziv, Y., Ron, N., Butovsky, O., Landa, G., Sudai, E., Greenberg, N., Cohen, H., Kipnis, J., & Schwartz, M. (2006) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1629 · Cited by 1,209 · see citing works
Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs and the Risk of Alzheimer's Disease
in 't Veld, B. A., Ruitenberg, A., Hofman, A., Launer, L. J., van Duijn, C. M., Stijnen, T., Breteler, M. M. B., & Stricker, B. H. C. (2001) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa010178 · Cited by 1,196 · see citing works
Oxidative stress in the progression of Alzheimer disease in the frontal cortex
Ansari, M. A., & Scheff, S. W. (2010) · Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1097/nen.0b013e3181cb5af4 · Cited by 605 · see citing works
Edison, P., Archer, H. A., Gerhard, A., Hinz, R., Pavese, N., Turkheimer, F. E., Hammers, A., Tai, Y. F., Fox, N., Kennedy, A., et al. (2008) · Neurobiology of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2008.08.001 · Cited by 513 · see citing works
Lue, L.-F., Brachova, L., Civin, H. W., & Rogers, J. (1996) · Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1097/00005072-199655100-00008 · Cited by 246 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Their level of inflammatory markers is signicantly greater than levels of nondemented patients, but dramatically less than AD patients [18].”
BackgroundImmune reactive cells in senile plaques and cognitive decline in Alzheimer’s disease
Vehmas, A. K., Kawas, C. H., Stewart, W. F., & Troncoso, J. C. (2003) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/s0197-4580(02)00090-8 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Styren, S. D., Civin, W. H., & Rogers, J. (1990) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1016/0014-4886(90)90054-v · Cited by 191 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 79
- [1]Götz J Götz NN Animal models for Alzheimer’s disease and frontotemporal dementia: a perspective ASN Neuro 2009 1 4, article e00019 PMC2785514 19839939
- [2]Teunissen CE van Boxtel MPJ Bosma H Serum markers in relation to cognitive functioning in an aging population: results of the Maastricht Aging Study (MAAS) Tijdschrift voor Gerontologie en Geriatrie 2003 34 1 6 12 12629905
- [3]McGeer EG McGeer PL Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s disease and mild cognitive impairment: a field in its infancy Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 2010 19 1 355 361 20061650
- [4]Akiyama H Barger S Barnum S Inflammation and Alzheimer’s disease Neurobiology of Aging 2000 21 3 383 421 10858586 PMC3887148
- [6]Szekely CA Breitner JCS Fitzpatrick AL NSAID use and dementia risk in the Cardiovascular Health Study: role of APOE and NSAID type Neurology 2008 70 1 17 24 18003940 PMC2877629
- [7]Anthony JC Breitner JCS Zandi PP Reduced prevalence of AD in users of NSAIDS and H2 receptor antagonists: the Cache County study Neurology 2000 54 11 2066 2071 10851364
- [8]Reines SA Block GA Morris JC No effect on Alzheimer’s disease in a 1-year, randomized, blinded, controlled study Neurology 2004 62 1 66 71 14718699
- [9]Kipnis J Cohen H Cardon M Z Y IV Schwartz M T cell deficiency leads to cognitive dysfunction: implications for therapeutic vaccination for schizophrenia and other psychiatric conditions Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2004 101 21 8180 8185 15141078 PMC419577
- [11]Wyss-Coray T Inflammation in Alzheimer disease: driving force, bystander or beneficial response? Nature Medicine 2006 12 9 1005 1015 16960575
- [13]Rogers J Shen Y A perspective on inflammation in Alzheimer’s disease Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2000 924 132 135 11193789
- [14]Perry VH Newman TA Cunningham C The impact of systemic infection on the progression of neurodegenerative disease Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2003 4 2 103 112 12563281
- [15]Mulugeta E Molina-Holgado F Elliott MS Inflammatory mediators in the frontal lobe of patients with mixed and vascular dementia Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders 2008 25 3 278 286 18303264
- [16]Stübner S Schön T Padberg F Interleukin-6 and the soluble IL-6 receptor are decreased in cerebrospinal fluid of geriatric patients with major depression: no alteration of soluble gp130 Neuroscience Letters 1999 259 3 145 148 10025579
- [17]Wang X-Q Peng Y-P Lu J-H Cao B-B Qiu Y-H Neuroprotection of interleukin-6 against NMDA attack and its signal transduction by JAK and MAPK Neuroscience Letters 2009 450 2 122 126 19061939
- [19]Webster S Lue L-F Brachova L Molecular and cellular characterization of the membrane attack complex, C5b-9, in Alzheimer’s disease Neurobiology of Aging 1997 18 4 415 421 9330973
- [20]del Rio-Hortega P Art and artifice in the science of histology Histopathology 1993 22 6 515 525 8354484
- [22]Cras P Kawai M Siedlak S Neuronal and microglial involvement in β-amyloid protein deposition in Alzheimer’s disease American Journal of Pathology 1990 137 2 241 246 2117395 PMC1877622
- [24]Perlmutter LS Barron E Chui HC Morphologic association between microglia and senile plaque amyloid in Alzheimer’s disease Neuroscience Letters 1990 119 1 32 36 2097581
- [25]Lue L-F Rydel R Brigham EF Inflammatory repertoire of Alzheimer’s disease and nondemented elderly microglia in vitro GLIA 2001 35 1 72 79 11424194
- [26]Simard AR Rivest S Bone marrow stem cells have the ability to populate the entire central nervous system into fully differentiated parenchymal microglia FASEB Journal 2004 18 9 998 1000 15084516
- [27]Majumdar A Cruz D Asamoah N Activation of microglia acidifies lysosomes and leads to degradation of Alzheimer amyloid fibrils Molecular Biology of the Cell 2007 18 4 1490 1496 17314396 PMC1838985
- [28]Koenigsknecht-Talboo J Landreth GE Microglial phagocytosis induced by fibrillar β-amyloid and IgGs are differentially regulated by proinflammatory cytokines Journal of Neuroscience 2005 25 36 8240 8249 16148231 PMC6725530
- [29]Fan R Xu F Previti ML Minocycline reduces microglial activation and improves behavioral deficits in a transgenic model of cerebral microvascular amyloid Journal of Neuroscience 2007 27 12 3057 3063 17376966 PMC6672462
- [30]Seabrook TJ Jiang L Maier M Lemere CA Minocycline affects microglia activation, Aβ deposition, and behavior in APP-tg mice GLIA 2006 53 7 776 782 16534778
- [31]Chaves C Marque CR Trzesniak C Glutamate-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor modulation and minocycline for the treatment of patients with schizophrenia: an update Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research 2009 42 11 1002 1014 19855900
- [32]Wyss-Coray T Lin C Yan F TGF-β1 promotes microglial amyloid-β clearance and reduces plaque burden in transgenic mice Nature Medicine 2001 7 5 612 618 11329064
- [33]Persson M Brantefjord M Hansson E Rönnbäck L Lipopolysaccharide increases microglial GLT-1 expression and glutamate uptake capacity in vitro by a mechanism dependent on TNF-α GLIA 2005 51 2 111 120 15789431
- [34]Francis PT Altered glutamate neurotransmission and behaviour in dementia: evidence from studies of memantine Current Molecular Pharmacology 2009 2 1 77 82 20021448
- [35]Kim SU de Vellis J Microglia in health and disease Journal of Neuroscience Research 2005 81 3 302 313 15954124
- [36]Hanisch U-K Kettenmann H Microglia: active sensor and versatile effector cells in the normal and pathologic brain Nature Neuroscience 2007 10 11 1387 1394 17965659
- [38]Remarque EJ Bollen ELEM Weverling-Rijnsburger AWE Laterveer JC Blauw GJ Westendorp RGJ Patients with Alzheimer’s disease display a pro-inflammatory phenotype Experimental Gerontology 2001 36 1 171 176 11162920
- [39]Innamorato NG Lastres-Becker I Cuadrado A Role of microglial redox balance in modulation of neuroinflammation Current Opinion in Neurology 2009 22 3 308 314 19359988
- [40]Espey MG Chernyshev ON Reinhard JF Jr. Namboodiri MAA Colton CA Activated human microglia produce the excitotoxin quinolinic acid NeuroReport 1997 8 2 431 434 9080423
- [41]Giulian D Senile plaques stimulate microglia to release a neurotoxin found in Alzheimer brain Neurochemistry International 1995 27 1 119 137 7655344
- [42]Leipnitz G Schumacher C Dalcin KB In vitro evidence for an antioxidant role of 3-hydroxykynurenine and 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid in the brain Neurochemistry International 2007 50 1 83 94 16959377
- [43]Thomas SR Witting PK Stocker R 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid is an efficient, cell-derived co-antioxidant for α-tocopherol, inhibiting human low density lipoprotein and plasma lipid peroxidation Journal of Biological Chemistry 1996 271 51 32714 32721 8955104
- [44]Smith WL Michael Garavito R DeWitt DL Prostaglandin endoperoxide H syntheses (cyclooxygenases)-1 and -2 Journal of Biological Chemistry 1996 271 52 33157 33160 8969167
- [45]Aisen PS Davis KL The search for disease-modifying treatment for Alzheimer’s disease Neurology 1997 48 5 S35 S41 9153159
- [46]Hirst WD Young KA Newton R Allport VC Marriott DR Wilkin GP Expression of COX-2 by normal and reactive astrocytes in the adult rat central nervous system Molecular and Cellular Neurosciences 1999 13 1 57 68 10049531
- [47]Hauss-Wegrzyniak B Vraniak P Wenk GL The effects of a novel NSAID on chronic neuroinflammation are age dependent Neurobiology of Aging 1999 20 3 305 313 10588578
- [48]Planas AM Soriano MA Rodríquez-Farré E Ferrer I Induction of cyclooxygenase-2 mRNA and protein following transient focal ischemia in the rat brain Neuroscience Letters 1995 200 3 187 190 9064608
- [49]Tocco G Freire-Moar J Schreiber SS Sakhi SH Aisen PS Pasinetti GM Maturational regulation and regional induction of cyclooxygenase-2 in rat brain: implications for Alzheimer’s disease Experimental Neurology 1997 144 2 339 349 9168834
- [50]Pasinetti GM Aisen PS Cyclooxygenase-2 expression is increased in frontal cortex of Alzheimer’s disease brain Neuroscience 1998 87 2 319 324 9740394
- [51]Matsuoka Y Picciano M Maleste B Inflammatory responses to amyloidosis in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease American Journal of Pathology 2001 158 4 1345 1354 11290552 PMC1891893
- [52]Hewett SJ Uliasz TF Vidwans AS Hewett JA Cyclooxygenase-2 contributes to N-methyl-D-aspartate-mediated neuronal cell death in primary cortical cell culture Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 2000 293 2 417 425 10773011
- [53]Willard LB Hauss-Wegrzyniak B Danysz W Wenk GL The cytotoxicity of chronic neuroinflammation upon basal forebrain cholinergic neurons of rats can be attenuated by glutamatergic antagonism or cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition Experimental Brain Research 2000 134 1 58 65 11026726
- [54]Kunz T Oliw EH The selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor rofecoxib reduces kainate-induced cell death in the rat hippocampus European Journal of Neuroscience 2001 13 3 569 575 11168565
- [55]Araki E Forster C Dubinsky JM Ross ME Iadecola C Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor NS-398 protects neuronal cultures from lipopolysaccharide-induced neurotoxicity Stroke 2001 32 10 2370 2375 11588328
- [56]Yasojima K Schwab C McGeer EG McGeer PL Distribution of cyclooxygenase-1 and cyclooxygenase-2 mRNAs and proteins in human brain and peripheral organs Brain Research 1999 830 2 226 236 10366679
- [57]Ho L Purohit D Haroutunian V Neuronal cyclooxygenase 2 expression in the hippocampal formation as a function of the clinical progression of Alzheimer disease Archives of Neurology 2001 58 3 487 492 11255454
- [58]Lukiw WJ Bazan NG Cyclooxygenase 2 RNA message abundance, stability, and hypervariability in sporadic Alzheimer neocortex Journal of Neuroscience Research 1997 50 6 937 945 9452008
- [59]Chang JW Coleman PD O’Banion MK Prostaglandin G/H synthase-2 (cyclooxygenase-2) mRNA expression is decreased in Alzheimer’s disease Neurobiology of Aging 1996 17 5 801 808 8892355
- [60]Montine TJ Sidell KR Crews BC Elevated CSF prostaglandin E2 levels in patients with probable AD Neurology 1999 53 7 1495 1498 10534257
- [61]Lee RKK Knapp S Wurtman RJ Prostaglandin E2 stimulates amyloid precursor protein gene expression: inhibition by immunosuppressants Journal of Neuroscience 1999 19 3 940 947 9920657 PMC6782137
- [62]Blom MAA Van Twillert MGH de Vries SC NSAIDS inhibit the IL-1 β-induced IL-6 release from human post-mortem astrocytes: the involvement of prostaglandin E2 Brain Research 1997 777 1-2 210 218 9449430
- [63]Fiebich BL Hüll M Lieb K Gyufko K Berger M Bauer J Prostaglandin E2 induces interleukin-6 synthesis in human astrocytoma cells Journal of Neurochemistry 1997 68 2 704 709 9003059
- [64]Kelley KA Ho L Winger D Potentiation of excitotoxicity in transgenic mice overexpressing neuronal cyclooxygenase-2 American Journal of Pathology 1999 155 3 995 1004 10487857 PMC1866889
- [65]Pasinetti GM Cyclooxygenase and inflammation in Alzheimer’s disease: experimental approaches and clinical interventions Journal of Neuroscience Research 1998 54 1 1 6 9778144
- [66]Jiang C Ting AT Seed B PPAR-γ agonists inhibit production of monocyte inflammatory cytokines Nature 1998 391 6662 82 86 9422509
- [67]Lehmann JM Lenhard JM Oliver BB Ringold GM Kliewer SA Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors α and γ are activated by indomethacin and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs Journal of Biological Chemistry 1997 272 6 3406 3410 9013583
- [68]Ricote M Li AC Willson TM Kelly CJ Glass CK The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ is a negative regulator of macrophage activation Nature 1998 391 6662 79 82 9422508
- [69]Combs CK Johnson DE Cannady SB Lehman TM Landreth GE Identification of microglial signal transduction pathways mediating a neurotoxic response to amyloidogenic fragments of β-amyloid and prion proteins Journal of Neuroscience 1999 19 3 928 939 9920656 PMC6782151
- [70]Combs CK Johnson DE Karlo JC Cannady SB Landreth GE Inflammatory mechanisms in Alzheimer’s disease: inhibition of β-amyloid-stimulated proinflammatory responses and neurotoxicity by PPARγ agonists Journal of Neuroscience 2000 20 2 558 567 10632585 PMC6772401
- [72]Smith MA Zhu X Tabaton M Increased iron and free radical generation in preclinical Alzheimer disease and mild cognitive impairment Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 2010 19 1 353 372 PMC2842004 20061651
- [73]Schipper HM Song W Zukor H Hascalovici JR Zeligman D Heme oxygenase-1 and neurodegeneration: expanding frontiers of engagement Journal of Neurochemistry 2009 110 2 469 485 19457088
- [74]Alcaraz MJ Fernandez P Guillén MI Anti-inflammatory actions of the heme oxygenase-1 pathway Current Pharmaceutical Design 2003 9 30 2541 2551 14529552
- [75]Cuadrado A Rojo AI Heme oxygenase-1 as a therapeutic target in neurodegenerative diseases and brain infections Current Pharmaceutical Design 2008 14 5 429 442 18289070
- [76]Kimura K Mechanisms of active oxygen species reduction by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs International Journal of Biochemistry and Cell Biology 1997 29 3 437 446 9202422
- [77]Nivsarkar M Banerjee A Padh H Cyclooxygenase inhibitors: a novel direction for Alzheimer’s management Pharmacological Reports 2008 60 5 692 698 19066416
- [78]Guardia-Laguarta C Pera M Lleó A γ-secretase as a therapeutic target in Alzheimer’s disease Current Drug Targets 2010 11 4 506 517 20015011
- [80]Kukar T Murphy MP Eriksen JL Diverse compounds mimic Alzheimer disease-causing mutations by augmenting Aβ42 production Nature Medicine 2005 11 5 545 550 15834426
- [81]Lleó A Berezovska O Herl L Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs lower Aβ42 and change presenilin 1 conformation Nature Medicine 2004 10 10 1065 1066 15448688
- [82]McGeer PL Schulzer M McGeer EG Arthritis and anti-inflammatory agents as possible protective factors for Alzheimer’s disease: a review of 17 epidemiologic studies Neurology 1996 47 2 425 432 8757015
- [83]Vlad SC Miller DR Kowall NW Felson DT Protective effects of NSAIDs on the development of Alzheimer disease Neurology 2008 70 19 1672 1677 18458226 PMC2758242
- [85]Wolfson C Perrault A Moride Y Esdaile JM Abenhaim L Momoli F A case-control analysis of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and Alzheimer’s disease: are they protective? Neuroepidemiology 2002 21 2 81 86 11901277
- [86]Craft JM Watterson DM Van Eldik LJ Human amyloid β-induced neuroinflammation is an early event in neurodegeneration GLIA 2006 53 5 484 490 16369931
- [87]Yermakova AV Kerry O’Banion M Downregulation of neuronal cyclooxygenase-2 expression in end stage Alzheimer’s disease Neurobiology of Aging 2001 22 6 823 836 11754989
- [88]Combrinck M Williams J De Berardinis MA Levels of CSF prostaglandin E2, cognitive decline, and survival in Alzheimer’s disease Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 2006 77 1 85 88 PMC2117387 15944180
- [89]Aisen PS The potential of anti-inflammatory drugs for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease Lancet Neurology 2002 1 5 279 284 12849425
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative disorders: the roles of microglia and astrocytes
Kwon, H. S., & Koh, S.-H. (2020) · Translational Neurodegeneration · doi:10.1186/s40035-020-00221-2 · Cited by 2,595 · see citing works
Microglia, neuroinflammation, and beta-amyloid protein in Alzheimer’s disease
Cai, Z., Hussain, M. D., & Yan, L.-J. (2014) · International Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.3109/00207454.2013.833510 · Cited by 583 · see citing works
Chami, L., & Checler, F. (2012) · Molecular Neurodegeneration · doi:10.1186/1750-1326-7-52 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Plants-derived neuroprotective agents: cutting the cycle of cell death through multiple mechanisms
Elufioye, T. O., Berida, T. I., & Habtemariam, S. (2017) · Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine · doi:10.1155/2017/3574012 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Jiang, H., Hampel, H., Prvulovic, D., Wallin, A., Blennow, K., Li, R., & Shen, Y. (2011) · Molecular Neurodegeneration · doi:10.1186/1750-1326-6-69 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Kurtys, E., Eisel, U. L. M., Verkuyl, J. M., Broersen, L. M., Dierckx, R. A. J. O., & de Vries, E. F. J. (2016) · Neurochemistry International · doi:10.1016/j.neuint.2016.07.008 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Guo, Q., Li, Y., Xu, S., Wang, P., Qian, K., Yang, P., Sheng, D., Wang, L., Cheng, Y., Meng, R., et al. (2023) · Journal of Controlled Release · doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2023.01.074 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Lymphoid-like Suppressive Microglia in Alzheimer’s Disease: A New Neuroimmune Regulatory Axis?
Chmiel, J., Gawełczyk, W., Soczyńska, J., & Leszek, J. (2026) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells15131151
- Authors
- Krause, D. L., & Müller, N.
- Affiliations
- Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Krause, Daniela L.
- Venue
- International Journal of Alzheimer's Disease
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2010
- Volume
- 2010
- Pages
- 1-9
- ISSN
- 2090-0252 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2925207
- OpenAlex
- W2077346158
- Cited by
- 168
- References
- 10
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 15
- FWCI
- 6.98
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- International Journal of Alzheimer s Disease (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neurological Disease Mechanisms and Treatments
- Keywords
- neuroinflammation, microglial activation, Alzheimer's disease, anti-inflammatory therapy, neurodegeneration, brain tissue damage, neuroprotection, disease-modifying therapy
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review