The DOI matches its Crossref record, with a small difference in title or year.
Introduction to Statistical Mediation Analysis
Abstract
This volume introduces the statistical, methodological, and conceptual aspects of mediation analysis. Applications from health, social, and developmental psychology, sociology, communication, exercise science, and epidemiology are emphasized throughout. Single-mediator, multilevel, and longitudinal models are reviewed. The author's goal is to help the reader apply mediation analysis to their own data and understand its limitations. Each chapter features an overview, numerous worked examples, a summary, and exercises (with answers to the odd numbered questions). The accompanying CD contains outputs described in the book from SAS, SPSS, LISREL, EQS, MPLUS, and CALIS, and a program to simulate the model. The notation used is consistent with existing literature on mediation in psychology. The book opens with a review of the types of research questions the mediation model addresses. Part II describes the estimation of mediation effects including assumptions, statistical tests, and the construction of confidence limits. Advanced models including mediation in path analysis, longitudinal models, multilevel data, categorical variables, and mediation in the context of moderation are then described. The book closes with a discussion of the limits of mediation analysis, additional approaches to identifying mediating variables, and future directions. Introduction to Statistical Mediation Analysis is intended for researchers and advanced students in health, social, clinical, and developmental psychology as well as communication, public health, nursing, epidemiology, and sociology. Some exposure to a graduate level research methods or statistics course is assumed. The overview of mediation analysis and the guidelines for conducting a mediation analysis will be appreciated by all readers.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“A wide sample of individuals from the general population was analyzed with strong statistical methodologies (Iacobucci et al., 2007; MacKinnon, 2012; MacKinnon et al., 2012, 2013) providing good results (McDonald and Ho, 2002; Hayes, 2009; Iacobucci, 2010; Preacher, 2015).”
From The Anxiety-Buffer Hypothesis in the Time of COVID-19: When Self-Esteem Protects From the Impact of Loneliness and Fear on Anxiety and Depression (2020) · cites this paper as MacKinnon, 2012
Citations
Cites
Still being checked.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 201–300 of 1,096
Whither cognitive bias modification research? Commentary on the special section articles.
MacLeod, C., Koster, E. H. W., & Fox, E. (2009) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014878 · Cited by 239
Nagengast, B., & Marsh, H. W. (2012) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0027697 · Cited by 262
Corraini, P., Olsen, M., Pedersen, L. H., Dekkers, O. M., & Vandenbroucke, J. P. (2017) · Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.2147/clep.s129728 · Cited by 233
Grunschel, C., Schwinger, M., Steinmayr, R., & Fries, S. (2016) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2016.06.008 · Cited by 276
Silton, R. L., Heller, W., Towers, D. N., Engels, A. S., Spielberg, J. M., Edgar, J. C., Sass, S. M., Stewart, J. L., Sutton, B. P., Banich, M. T., et al. (2009) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.12.061 · Cited by 257
The effect of social presence and chatbot errors on trust
Toader, D.-C., Boca, G., Toader, R., Măcelaru, M., Toader, C., Ighian, D., & Rădulescu, A. T. (2019) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su12010256 · Cited by 233
Harks, B., Rakoczy, K., Hattie, J., Besser, M., & Klieme, E. (2013) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2013.785384 · Cited by 287
Williams, T. A., & Shepherd, D. A. (2016) · Journal of Business Venturing · doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2016.04.002 · Cited by 235
Fong, K. H., & Snape, E. (2013) · British Journal of Management · doi:10.1111/1467-8551.12048 · Cited by 229
3. The Foundations of Causal Inference
Pearl, J. (2010) · Sociological Methodology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9531.2010.01228.x · Cited by 245
Rhoades, B. L., Warren, H. K., Domitrovich, C. E., & Greenberg, M. T. (2010) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2010.07.003 · Cited by 277
Cimpian, J. R., Lubienski, S. T., Ganley, C. M., & Copur‐Gencturk, Y. (2013) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0035073 · Cited by 251
Miller, A. B., Sheridan, M. A., Hanson, J. L., McLaughlin, K. A., Bates, J. E., Lansford, J. E., Pettit, G. S., & Dodge, K. A. (2018) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000331 · Cited by 250
Kang, J. H., Matusik, J. G., Kim, T., & Phillips, J. M. (2016) · Journal of Business Venturing · doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2016.08.002 · Cited by 239
Testa, M., Hoffman, J. H., & Livingston, J. A. (2010) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0018914 · Cited by 222
Understanding the Relationship between Urban Public Space and Social Cohesion: A Systematic Review
Qi, J., Suvodeep Mazumdar, A., & Vasconcelos, A. C. (2024) · International Journal of Community Well-Being · doi:10.1007/s42413-024-00204-5 · Cited by 278
Morelli, M., Cattelino, E., Baiocco, R., Trumello, C., Babore, A., Candelori, C., & Chirumbolo, A. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.584645 · Cited by 220
Sources of group and individual differences in emerging fraction skills.
Hecht, S. A., & Vagi, K. J. (2010) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0019824 · Cited by 220
Breaking through the loss cycle of burnout: The role of motivation
ten Brummelhuis, L. L., ter Hoeven, C. L., Bakker, A. B., & Peper, B. (2011) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8325.2011.02019.x · Cited by 164
Pinho, J. C., & Prange, C. I. (2015) · Journal of World Business · doi:10.1016/j.jwb.2015.08.001 · Cited by 228
Mohr, D. C., Schueller, S. M., Riley, W. T., Brown, C. H., Cuijpers, P., Duan, N., Kwasny, M. J., Stiles-Shields, C., & Cheung, K. (2015) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.4391 · Cited by 216
Depression and social anxiety in relation to problematic smartphone use
Elhai, J. D., Tiamiyu, M. F., & Weeks, J. W. (2018) · Internet Research · doi:10.1108/intr-01-2017-0019 · Cited by 233
Picardi, A., Gigantesco, A., Tarolla, E., Stoppioni, V., Cerbo, R., Cremonte, M., Alessandri, G., Lega, I., & Nardocci, F. (2018) · Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health · doi:10.2174/1745017901814010143 · Cited by 249
See, J., MacLeod, C., & Bridle, R. (2009) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014377 · Cited by 215
Effectiveness of Total Worker Health interventions.
Anger, W. K., Elliot, D. L., Bodner, T., Olson, R., Rohlman, D. S., Truxillo, D. M., Kuehl, K. S., Hammer, L. B., & Montgomery, D. (2014) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038340 · Cited by 224
McFall, M. (2010) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2010.1769 · Cited by 213
Estimating and testing high-dimensional mediation effects in epigenetic studies
Zhang, H., Zheng, Y., Zhang, Z., Gao, T., Joyce, B. T., Yoon, G., Zhang, W., Schwartz, J. D., Just, A. C., Colicino, E., et al. (2016) · Bioinformatics · doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/btw351 · Cited by 212
GALVIN, B. M., WALDMAN, D. A., & BALTHAZARD, P. (2010) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01179.x · Cited by 212
Dumont, H., Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., Neumann, M., Niggli, A., & Schnyder, I. (2011) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2011.09.004 · Cited by 240
Lemmens, L. H. J. M., Müller, V. N. L. S., Arntz, A., & Huibers, M. J. H. (2016) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2016.09.004 · Cited by 211
Wang, P., Wang, X., Wu, Y., Xie, X., Wang, X., Zhao, F., Ouyang, M., & Lei, L. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.02.008 · Cited by 221
Fugas, C. S., da Silva, S. A., & Meliá, J. L. (2011) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2011.08.013 · Cited by 211
Shen, J., & Zhang, H. (2017) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-017-3544-0 · Cited by 236
Strine, T. (2012) · American Journal of Health Behavior · doi:10.5993/ajhb.36.3.11 · Cited by 210
Cerin, E., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2009) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980008003649 · Cited by 210
Self-citationAdams, A. E., Tolman, R. M., Bybee, D., Sullivan, C. M., & Kennedy, A. C. (2012) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/1077801212474294 · Cited by 209
Rinck, M., Wiers, R. W. H. J., Becker, E. S., & Lindenmeyer, J. (2018) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/ccp0000321 · Cited by 218
Reversing Arrows in Mediation Models Does Not Distinguish Plausible Models
Thoemmes, F. (2015) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2015.1049351 · Cited by 208
Collie, R. J., & Martin, A. J. (2017) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2017.03.003 · Cited by 273
Savard, J., Ivers, H., Savard, M., & Morin, C. M. (2015) · Cancer · doi:10.1002/cncr.29244 · Cited by 209
Pachankis, J. E. (2015) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-015-0480-x · Cited by 205
Prati, G., Pietrantoni, L., & Zani, B. (2010) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/j.1539-6924.2010.01529.x · Cited by 204
Fairness in Decision-Making — The Causal Explanation Formula
Zhang, J., & Bareinboim, E. (2018) · Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1609/aaai.v32i1.11564 · Cited by 219
Ockene, I. S., Tellez, T. L., Rosal, M. C., Reed, G. W., Mordes, J., Merriam, P. A., Olendzki, B. C., Handelman, G., Nicolosi, R., & Ma, Y. (2012) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2011.300357 · Cited by 201
Statistical properties of four effect-size measures for mediation models
Miočević, M., O’Rourke, H. P., MacKinnon, D. P., & Brown, H. C. (2018) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-017-0870-1 · Cited by 200
Self-citationTrucco, E. M., Colder, C. R., & Wieczorek, W. F. (2011) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2011.02.008 · Cited by 217
Li, D., Li, X., Wang, Y., Zhao, L., Bao, Z., & Wen, F. (2013) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-013-9761-9 · Cited by 201
Heeren, A., Reese, H. E., McNally, R. J., & Philippot, P. (2012) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2011.10.005 · Cited by 198
Littlefield, A. K., Sher, K. J., & Wood, P. K. (2010) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0017512 · Cited by 206
Rios, R., Aiken, L. S., & Zautra, A. (2011) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12160-011-9306-9 · Cited by 196
Is It Really Self-Control? Examining the Predictive Power of the Delay of Gratification Task
Duckworth, A. L., Tsukayama, E., & Kirby, T. A. (2013) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167213482589 · Cited by 219
Dahl, J. L., Vescio, T. K., & Weaver, K. S. (2015) · Social Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000248 · Cited by 219
Religious Attendance and Loneliness in Later Life
Rote, S. M., Hill, T. D., & Ellison, C. G. (2012) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gns063 · Cited by 197
Teacher self-efficacy as a long-term predictor of instructional quality in the classroom
Künsting, J., Neuber, V., & Lipowsky, F. (2016) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-015-0272-7 · Cited by 203
Schmidt, A. M., & DeShon, R. P. (2010) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0018289 · Cited by 195
Causal mediation analysis in instrumental-variables regressions
Dippel, C., Ferrara, A., & Heblich, S. (2020) · The Stata Journal Promoting communications on statistics and Stata · doi:10.1177/1536867x20953572 · Cited by 195
Commentary on “Mediation analysis and categorical variables: The final frontier” by Dawn Iacobucci
MacKinnon, D. P., & Cox, M. G. (2012) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2012.03.009 · Cited by 195
Self-citationCommentary: Mediation Analysis, Causal Process, and Cross-Sectional Data
Shrout, P. E. (2011) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1080/00273171.2011.606718 · Cited by 195
The missing link in building customer brand identification: The role of brand attractiveness
So, K. K. F., King, C., Hudson, S., & Meng, F. (2016) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2016.09.013 · Cited by 215
Hesser, H. (2015) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2015.02.003 · Cited by 192
Sypniewska, B. A., Baran, M., & Kłos, M. (2023) · International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal · doi:10.1007/s11365-023-00834-9 · Cited by 354
Magner, U., Schwonke, R., Aleven, V. A. W. M. M., Popescu, O., & Renkl, A. (2012) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.07.002 · Cited by 207
Turner, I., Reynolds, K. J., Lee, E., Subašić, E., & Bromhead, D. (2014) · School Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1037/spq0000074 · Cited by 191
Elhai, J. D., Vasquez, J. K., Lustgarten, S. D., Levine, J. C., & Hall, B. J. (2017) · Social Science Computer Review · doi:10.1177/0894439317741087 · Cited by 208
Editors’ Comment: A Few Guidelines for Quantitative Submissions
Mustillo, S., Ližardo, O., & McVeigh, R. (2018) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122418806282 · Cited by 205
Imbens, G. W. (2020) · Journal of Economic Literature · doi:10.1257/jel.20191597 · Cited by 235
Hypothesis testing and statistical analysis of microbiome
Xia, Y., & Sun, J. (2017) · Genes & Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.gendis.2017.06.001 · Cited by 206
Causal Mediation Programs in R, M plus , SAS, SPSS, and Stata
Valente, M. J., Rijnhart, J. J. M., Smyth, H. L., Muniz, F. B., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2020) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705511.2020.1777133 · Cited by 203
Self-citationKerig, P. K., Bennett, D. C., Thompson, M., & Becker, S. P. (2012) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.21700 · Cited by 188
Eisendrath, S. J., Gillung, E., Delucchi, K. L., Segal, Z. V., Nelson, J. C., McInnes, L. A., Mathalon, D. H., & Feldman, M. D. (2016) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000442260 · Cited by 187
Aiken, L. S., West, S. G., & Millsap, R. E. (2008) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.63.1.32 · Cited by 187
The trade-off between accuracy and precision in latent variable models of mediation processes.
Ledgerwood, A., & Shrout, P. E. (2011) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0024776 · Cited by 200
Carvacho, H., Zick, A., Haye, A., González, R., Manzi, J., Kocik, C., & Bertl, M. (2013) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.1961 · Cited by 186
Overview of Meta-Analyses of the Prevention of Mental Health, Substance Use, and Conduct Problems
Sandler, I. N., Wolchik, S. A., Cruden, G., Mahrer, N. E., Ahn, S., Brincks, A. M., & Brown, C. H. (2014) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185524 · Cited by 184
Sorensen, G., McLellan, D. L., Sabbath, E. L., Dennerlein, J. T., Nagler, E. M., Hurtado, D. A., Pronk, N. P., & Wagner, G. R. (2016) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.08.005 · Cited by 187
Reid, A. E., & Carey, K. B. (2015) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.06.006 · Cited by 185
Patock-Peckham, J. A., & Morgan-Lopez, A. A. (2006) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/0893-164x.20.2.117 · Cited by 185
Landwehr, J. R., Wentzel, D., & Herrmann, A. P. (2013) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1509/1547-7185-77.5.92 · Cited by 186
Luciano, J. V., Guallar, J. A., Aguado, J., López-del-Hoyo, Y., Olivan, B., Magallón, R., Alda, M., Serrano-Blanco, A., Gili, M., & Garcia-Campayo, J. (2014) · PAIN · doi:10.1016/j.pain.2013.12.029 · Cited by 183
Martin, G. P., Gözübüyük, R., & Becerra, M. (2013) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.2216 · Cited by 181
Bulińska–Stangrecka, H., & Bagieńska, A. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18041903 · Cited by 249
(2015) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199672547.001.0001 · Cited by 192
Fulu, E., & Miedema, S. S. (2015) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/1077801215596244 · Cited by 189
van den Berg, M., van Poppel, M. N. M., KAMP, I. V., Ruijsbroek, A., Mas, M. T., Gidlow, C. J., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Gražulevičienė, R., van Mechelen, W., Kruize, H., et al. (2017) · Environment and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0013916517738563 · Cited by 181
The Merits of Using Longitudinal Mediation
Jose, P. E. (2016) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2016.1207175 · Cited by 182
Calderón-Tena, C. O., Knight, G. P., & Carlo, G. (2011) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0021825 · Cited by 180
Getting Explicit About the Implicit
Uhlmann, E. L., Leavitt, K., Menges, J. I., Koopman, J., Howe, M. D., & Johnson, R. E. (2012) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428112442750 · Cited by 190
Elhai, J. D., Levine, J. C., O’Brien, K. D., & Armour, C. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.03.026 · Cited by 177
Executive function mediates socio-economic and racial differences in early academic achievement
Nesbitt, K. T., Baker-Ward, L. E., & Willoughby, M. T. (2013) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2013.07.005 · Cited by 207
Longitudinal Association Between Teen Sexting and Sexual Behavior
Temple, J. R., & Choi, H. J. (2014) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2014-1974 · Cited by 178
Brown, C. H., Wang, W., Kellam, S. G., Muthén, B. O., Petras, H., Toyinbo, P., Poduska, J., Ialongo, N., Wyman, P. A., Chamberlain, P., et al. (2008) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.11.013 · Cited by 177
Self-citationSocial Support, Family Functioning and Parenting Competence in Adolescent Parents
Angley, M., Divney, A., Magriples, U., & Kershaw, T. (2014) · Maternal and Child Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10995-014-1496-x · Cited by 179
Ben‐Eliyahu, A., & Linnenbrink‐Garcia, L. (2015) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-014-9129-8 · Cited by 177
Wong, M. M.-H., & Brower, K. J. (2012) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.04.008 · Cited by 176
McLean, S. A., Ressler, K. J., Koenen, K. C., Neylan, T. C., Germine, L. T., Jovanović, T., Clifford, G. D., Zeng, D., An, X., Linnstaedt, S. D., et al. (2019) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-019-0581-3 · Cited by 176
Luan, F., Yang, X., Chen, Y., & Regis, P. J. (2022) · Sustainable Production and Consumption · doi:10.1016/j.spc.2022.01.015 · Cited by 177
Rozgonjuk, D., Kattago, M., & Täht, K. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.08.003 · Cited by 176
Indirect effects of child reports of teacher–student relationship on achievement.
Hughes, J. N., Wu, J., Kwok, O., Villarreal, V., & Johnson, A. Y. (2011) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0026339 · Cited by 176
Visualising the invisible: a network approach to reveal the informal social side of student learning
Hommes, J. E., Rienties, B., de Grave, W. S., Bos, G. M. J., Schuwirth, L., & Scherpbier, A. J. J. A. (2012) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-012-9349-0 · Cited by 188
Teacher autonomy support reduces adolescent anxiety and depression: An 18‐month longitudinal study
Yu, C., Li, X., Wang, S., & Zhang, W. (2016) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.03.001 · Cited by 194
Metadata
- Authors
- MacKinnon, D. P.
- Affiliations
- Arizona State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- MacKinnon, David P.
- ORCID
- MacKinnon, David P.
- Venue
- Routledge eBooks
- Publisher
- Routledge
- Published
- 2012-10-02
- OpenAlex
- W1640894779
- Cited by
- 5,618
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 99 · 2025: 249 · 2024: 277 · 2023: 321 · 2022: 321 · 2021: 397 · 2020: 424 · 2019: 386 · 2018: 357 · 2017: 344 · 2016: 343 · 2015: 399 · 2014: 415 · 2013: 361 · 2012: 307
- FWCI
- 120.65
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Routledge eBooks (publishedVersion)
- CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Advanced Causal Inference Techniques
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Keywords
- mediation analysis, mediating effect, path analysis, multilevel mediation, longitudinal mediation, categorical variables, moderation, confidence limits
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review