A long-term monthly surface water storage dataset for the Congo basin from 1992 to 2015
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Abstract
The spatio-temporal variation of surface water storage (SWS) in the Congo River basin (CRB), the second-largest watershed in the world, remains widely unknown. In this study, satellite-derived observations are combined to estimate SWS dynamics at the CRB and sub-basin scales over 1992–2015. Two methods are employed. The first one combines surface water extent (SWE) from the Global Inundation Extent from Multi-Satellite (GIEMS-2) dataset and the long-term satellite-derived surface water height from multi-mission radar altimetry. The second one, based on the hypsometric curve approach, combines SWE from GIEMS-2 with topographic data from four global digital elevation models (DEMs), namely the Terra Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER), Advanced Land Observing Satellite (ALOS), Multi-Error-Removed Improved Terrain (MERIT), and Forest And Buildings removed Copernicus DEM (FABDEM). The results provide SWS variations at monthly time steps from 1992 to 2015 characterized by a strong seasonal and interannual variability with an annual mean amplitude of ∼101±23 km 3 . The Middle Congo sub-basin shows a higher mean annual amplitude (∼71±15 km 3 ). The comparison of SWS derived from the two methods and four DEMs shows an overall fair agreement. The SWS estimates are assessed against satellite precipitation data and in situ river discharge and, in general, a relatively fair agreement is found between the three hydrological variables at the basin and sub-basin scales (linear correlation coefficient >0.5). We further characterize the spatial distribution of the major drought that occurred across the basin at the end of 2005 and in early 2006. The SWS estimates clearly reveal the widespread spatial distribution of this severe event (∼40 % deficit as compared to their long-term average), in accordance with the large negative anomaly observed in precipitation over that period. This new SWS long-term dataset over the Congo River basin is an unprecedented new source of information for improving our comprehension of hydrological and biogeochemical cycles in the basin. As the datasets used in our study are available globally, our study opens opportunities to further develop satellite-derived SWS estimates at the global scale. The dataset of the CRB's SWS and the related Python code to run the reproducibility of the hypsometric curve approach dataset of SWS are respectively available for download at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7299823 and https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8011607 (Kitambo et al., 2022b, 2023).
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Self-citationPervez, M. S., & Henebry, G. M. (2015) · Natural hazards and earth system sciences · doi:10.5194/nhess-15-147-2015 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Normandin, C., Frappart, F., Lubac, B., Bélanger, S., Marieu, V., Blarel, F., Robinet, A., & Guiastrennec-Faugas, L. (2018) · Hydrology and earth system sciences · doi:10.5194/hess-22-1543-2018 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Self-citationFrappart, F., Papa, F., Güntner, A., Werth, S., Ramillien, G., Prigent, C., Rossow, W. B., & Bonnet, M. (2010) · Hydrology and earth system sciences · doi:10.5194/hess-14-2443-2010 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Self-citationAn ERS-2 altimetry reprocessing compatible with ENVISAT for long-term land and ice sheets studies
Frappart, F., Legrésy, B., Niño, F., Blarel, F., Fuller, N., Fleury, S., Birol, F., & Calmant, S. (2016) · Remote Sensing of Environment · doi:10.1016/j.rse.2016.07.037 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Self-citationCongo Basin rainforest — invest US$150 million in science
WHITE, L. J. T., Masudi, E. B., Ndongo, J. D., Matondo, R. S., Soudan-Nonault, A., Ngomanda, A., Averti, I. S., Ewango, C. E. N., Sonké, B., & Lewis, S. L. (2021) · Nature · doi:10.1038/d41586-021-02818-7 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Kitambo, B., Papa, F., Paris, A., Tshimanga, R. M., Calmant, S., Fleischmann, A. S., Frappart, F., Becker, M., Tourian, M. J., Prigent, C., et al. (2022) · Hydrology and earth system sciences · doi:10.5194/hess-26-1857-2022 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationLiquid Assets: How Demographic Changes and Water Management Policies Affect Freshwater Resources
Boberg, J. (2005) · RAND Corporation eBooks · doi:10.7249/mg358 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Historical and future contributions of inland waters to the Congo Basin carbon balance
Hastie, A., Lauerwald, R., Ciais, P., Papa, F., & Regnier, P. A. G. (2021) · Earth System Dynamics · doi:10.5194/esd-12-37-2021 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Self-citationThe changing water cycle: Freshwater in the Congo
Inogwabini, B. (2020) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Water · doi:10.1002/wat2.1410 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Pham‐Duc, B., Papa, F., Prigent, C., Aires, F., Biancamaria, S., & Frappart, F. (2019) · Water · doi:10.3390/w11010075 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationCurrent knowledge on the Cuvette Centrale peatland complex and future research directions
BIDDULPH, G. E., Bocko, Y. E., Bola, P., Crezee, B., Dargie, G. C., Emba, O., Georgiou, S., Girkin, N. T., Hawthorne, D., Jovani‐Sancho, A. J., et al. (2022) · BOIS & FORETS DES TROPIQUES · doi:10.19182/bft2021.350.a36288 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Salameh, E., Frappart, F., Papa, F., Güntner, A., Venugopal, V., Getirana, A., Prigent, C., Aires, F., Labat, D., & Laignel, B. (2017) · Water · doi:10.3390/w9040245 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citationCurrent availability and distribution of Congo Basin’s freshwater resources
Tourian, M. J., Papa, F., Elmi, O., Sneeuw, N., Kitambo, B., Tshimanga, R. M., Paris, A., & Calmant, S. (2023) · Communications Earth & Environment · doi:10.1038/s43247-023-00836-z · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citationInvestigating the Role of the Cuvette Centrale in the Hydrology of the Congo River Basin
Datok, P., Fabre, C., Sauvage, S., N’kaya, G. D. M., Paris, A., dos Santos, V., Laraque, A., & Sánchez-Pérez, J. M. (2022) · Geophysical monograph · doi:10.1002/9781119657002.ch14 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationMonitoring Hydrological Variables from Remote Sensing and Modeling in the Congo River Basin
Paris, A., Calmant, S., Gosset, M., Fleischmann, A. S., Rocha, T. S. X. C., Garambois, P., Bricquet, J., Papa, F., Tshimanga, R. M., Gulemvuga, G., et al. (2022) · Geophysical monograph · doi:10.1002/9781119657002.ch18 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-citationKao, H.-C., Kuo, C., Tseng, K., Shum, C. K., Tseng, T.-P., Jia, Y., Yang, T., Ali, T., Yi, Y., & Hussain, D. (2019) · Marine Geodesy · doi:10.1080/01490419.2019.1623352 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Congo Basin Hydrology, Climate, and Biogeochemistry
(2022) · Geophysical monograph · doi:10.1002/9781119657002 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Hawker, L. P., & Neal, J. (2021) · Bristol Research (University of Bristol) · doi:10.5523/bris.25wfy0f9ukoge2gs7a5mqpq2j7 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Historical Changes in Rainfall Patterns over the Congo Basin and Impacts on Runoff (1903–2010)
Ndehedehe, C. E., & Agutu, N. O. (2022) · Geophysical monograph · doi:10.1002/9781119657002.ch9 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
de Marsily, G. (2004) · Comptes Rendus Géoscience · doi:10.1016/j.crte.2004.11.002 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Sridhar, V., Kang, H., Ali, S. A., Bola, G. B., Tshimanga, R. M., & Lakshmi, V. (2022) · Geophysical monograph · doi:10.1002/9781119842125.ch10 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationCazenave, A., Champollion, N., Benveniste, J., & Chen, J. (2016) · Space sciences series of ISSI · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-32449-4_1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Surface Water Storage computation
Kitambo, B., Papa, F., & Paris, A. (2023) · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) · doi:10.5281/zenodo.8011606 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citation
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Normandin, C., Frappart, F., Baghdadi, N. N., Bourrel, L., Luque, S. P., Ygorra, B., Kitambo, B., Papa, F., Riazanoff, S., & Wigneron, J. (2024) · Frontiers in Remote Sensing · doi:10.3389/frsen.2024.1466695 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationWongchuig, S., de Paiva, R. C. D., Siqueira, V. A., Papa, F., Fleischmann, A. S., Biancamaria, S., Paris, A., Parrens, M., & Bitar, A. A. (2024) · Water Resources Research · doi:10.1029/2024wr037155 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationMapping Water Levels across a Region of the Cuvette Centrale Peatland Complex
Georgiou, S., Mitchard, E. T. A., Crezee, B., Dargie, G. C., Young, D. M., Jovani‐Sancho, A. J., Kitambo, B., Papa, F., Bocko, Y. E., Bola, P., et al. (2023) · Remote Sensing · doi:10.3390/rs15123099 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationUnveiling the First Impressions of the Wide‐Swath Altimetry SWOT Mission Over the Ganga River, India
Dhote, P. R., Agarwal, A., Paris, A., Singhal, G., Thakur, P. K., Oubanas, H., Moreira, D. M., Gal, L., Garg, V., Kumar, P., et al. (2025) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2025gl115402 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationWhy is the Earth System Oscillating at a 6-Year Period?
Cazenave, A., Pfeffer, J., Mandéa, M., Dehant, V., & Gillet, N. (2025) · Surveys in Geophysics · doi:10.1007/s10712-024-09874-4 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Satellite Altimetry-based Extension of global-scale in situ river discharge Measurements (SAEM)
Saemian, P., Elmi, O., Stroud, M., Riggs, R., Kitambo, B., Papa, F., Allen, G. H., & Tourian, M. J. (2025) · Earth system science data · doi:10.5194/essd-17-2063-2025 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationWorden, S., Bloom, A. A., Worden, J. R., Levine, P. A., Shi, M., & Fu, R. (2024) · Water Resources Research · doi:10.1029/2023wr035092 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Normandin, C., Frappart, F., Bourrel, L., Diepkilé, A. T., Mougin, É., Zwarts, L., Blarel, F., Egon, F., & Wigneron, J. (2024) · Geocarto International · doi:10.1080/10106049.2024.2311203 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationMonitoring surface water in floodplains by satellites: Progress, challenges, and perspectives
Lin, Y., & Song, C. (2025) · Journal of Hydrology · doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.134458 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Kitambo, B. M., Wongchuig, S., Tshimanga, R. M., Paris, A., Blazquez, A., Moreira, D., Frappart, F., Fleischmann, A. S., Kileshye, J.-M. O., Tourian, M. J., et al. (2025) · Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ejrh.2025.102810 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationCheng, M. (2024) · Surveys in Geophysics · doi:10.1007/s10712-024-09852-w · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Uz, M., Atman, K. G., Akyılmaz, O., & Shum, C. K. (2026) · Journal of Hydrology · doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2026.135015 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Hydrology of the Congo Basin
Tshimanga, R. M., Trigg, M. A., Bechtold, M., Sridhar, V., Negrel, P., Kitambo, B., Bola, G. B., Mushi, C. A., Kechnit, D., N’kaya, G. D. M., et al. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-0716-5512-2_5
Self-citationKitambo, B. (2023) · HAL · doi:10.70675/c2d533efz62d1z4455zb66aza0828aa4d67a
Self-citationA Catchment Information System to Advance Systems-Based Management of Large Tropical River BasinsPreprint
Tshimanga, R. M., Nkaba, L. N., Ngandu, F. K., Lutonadio, G. S. K., Likenge, A. L., Kadiata, V. K., Sondi, C. M., SIBITALI, S., Omokenge, E., Kechnit, D., et al. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-10182724/v1
Self-citationTshimanga, R. M., Lutonadio, G. S. K., Bolaluembe, P.-C., Bisa, M. K., Bola, G. B., Kitambo, B., Bambuta, J. J. B., Mihaha, E.-T. N., Nkaba, L. N., Kapinga, N. K., et al. (2026) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2025.0049
Self-citationLu, Y., Zhu, W., Li, Z., Lv, A., Jiang, L., Mei, S., & Li, R. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.7589752
- Authors
- Kitambo, B. M., Papa, F., Paris, A., Tshimanga, R. M., Frappart, F., Calmant, S., Elmi, O., Fleischmann, A. S., Becker, M., Tourian, M. J., Jucá Oliveira, R. A., & Wongchuig, S.
- Affiliations
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
- University of Kinshasa (CD)
- University of Stuttgart (DE)
- Instituto de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Mamirauá (BR)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Earth System Science Data
- Publisher
- Copernicus GmbH
- Published
- 2023-07-12
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 2957-2982
- ISSN
- 1866-3508 (ISSN-L)
- 1866-3516
- OpenAlex
- W4384034169
- Cited by
- 19
- References
- 107
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 3
- FWCI
- 1.52
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Earth system science data (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- HAL (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (DYBANGO)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Hydrology and Watershed Management Studies
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Oceanography › Geophysics and Gravity Measurements
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Soil Moisture and Remote Sensing
- Keywords
- surface water storage, Congo River basin, surface water extent, radar altimetry, hypsometric curve, digital elevation model, seasonal and interannual variability, precipitation deficit, river discharge, water cycle, ASTER, ALOS, MERIT DEM
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