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Cited by 6Language, Discourse, Communication StrategiesEFL/ESL Teaching and LearningLinguistics and Language Analysis

A Multisemiotic Investigation of Iranian EFL Teachers’ Turn-allocation Strategies in their Classroom Interactions

Open access
Ghiasvand, Farhad, PhD Candidate of Applied Linguistics, Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran·2022·Language Related Research
DOI 10.52547/lrr.13.3.17
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Abstract

Second/foreign language classroom interaction is believed to have its own idiosyncrasies and peculiarities.Many studies have focused on the importance of turn-taking systems for students to gain and hold the floor.Nevertheless, a limited number of studies has explored teachers" turn-allocation strategies in their instructional interactions.Motivated by this gap, through the methodological framework of Conversation Analysis (CA), the present study attempted to investigate the frequently employed turn-allocation strategies that Iranian EFL teachers use in their classroom interactions with their students.To this end, a corpus of nine hours of English instruction was video-recorded and analyzed through Sacks et al."s (1974) model of turn-allocation.The results of in-depth qualitative analysis indicated that Iranian EFL teachers used multiple resources to allocate the turn to their students.More specifically, it was found that Iranian teachers generally allocate turns to their students through directing their gaze towards them as well as nominating them by their names.Moreover, the teachers, in this study, used non-verbal strategies of head nods and pointing gestures to nominate the next speaker to take the turn.The study ends with some implications for the EFL teachers in that they can manage their turn-allocation techniques more efficiently in their instructional interactions.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This Conversation Analysis study examined the multisemiotic turn-allocation strategies used by Iranian EFL teachers in video-recorded classroom interactions. It found that teachers most often allocated turns through gazing and vocative nomination, with head nods and pointing gestures also used.

Key findings

  • Across 563 turn-allocation strategies, gazing was most frequent at 205 instances (36.41%), followed by vocative nomination at 143 (25.39%), head nods at 123 (21.84%), pointing at 70 (12.43%), and other gestures at 22 (3.90%).
  • Iranian EFL teachers used both verbal and non-verbal resources to allocate turns, including gaze, names, head nods, pointing gestures, and other gestures/postures such as moving eyes and heads from side to side and shaking hands, fingers, and chins.
  • The paper reports that teachers generally allocated turns to students, while students rarely self-selected; combinations such as vocative + gazing, gazing + head nods, and pointing + head nods were observed but excluded from the analysis.

Methods

  • The study used Conversation Analysis within Sacks et al.’s (1974) turn-allocation model, analyzing video-recorded classroom interaction in a private English language institute in Tehran, Iran.
  • The corpus comprised six formal English classes of 90 minutes each, totaling nine hours; five Iranian EFL teachers (3 males, 2 females) with 3–8 years of teaching experience participated, teaching elementary to upper-intermediate learners.
  • Data were transcribed and analyzed for teacher turn-allocation strategies; student turns, self-selections, bids for speaking turns, and teacher allocations during individual/group work were excluded. Frequency counts and percentages were reported, with inter-rater reliability reported as Cohen’s Kappa = .95.

Limitations

  • The paper states that the corpus was limited to nine hours of English language teaching, gathered from only six EFL teachers, which limits generalizability; it also states that video-recording was the only data collection technique.
  • The text makes evident that only teacher turns were analyzed, while student turns and self-selections were excluded, so the findings do not capture the full interactional sequence.
  • The text also makes evident an inconsistency in class-size reporting: one section says classes varied from 3 to 6 EFL students, while another says the number of students varied from 5 to 10.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.52547/lrr.13.3.17

Cites

74 of 75 references verified0 citation errors · 1 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

1 of 8 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Previous studies (Ford et al., 2012; Lee, 2017; Li, 2014) endorsed gaze and vocative nomination for allocating turns in classroom interactions.

    “This finding is in line previous studies (e.g., Ford et al., 2012;Lee, 2017;Li, 2014) that endorsed these two techniques for allocating the turn to others in classroom interactions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Ford et al., 2012 source

      Section 2.0 identifies gaze as a nonverbal resource in talk-in-interaction, and the Conclusion discusses bodily-visual practices in managing turns. Our copy does not support the more specific attribution that Ford et al. endorsed both gaze and vocative nomination for allocating turns in classroom interactions; no page numbers are provided for these passages. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Lee, 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Li, 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Findingown data

    Head nods accounted for 21.84% (123) of turn-allocation strategies.

    “Moreover, they resorted to head nods as another way of passing the turn to the students in their classroom interaction (21.84%).”
    • Also stated in: § 6. Conclusion · plain
      “| Head Nods | 123 | 21.84 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Pointing accounted for 12.43% (70) of turn-allocation strategies.

    “The next frequent turn-allocation strategy that the participants utilized was pointing to the student and indicating he/she can take the floor (12.43%).”
    • Also stated in: § 6. Conclusion · plain
      “| Pointing | 70 | 12.43 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Iranian EFL teachers used non-verbal strategies of head nods to nominate the next speaker to take the turn.

    “Moreover, the teachers, in this study, used non-verbal strategies of head nods and pointing gestures to nominate the next speaker to take the turn.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Vocative nomination accounted for 25.39% (143) of turn-allocation strategies.

    “| Vocative | 143 | 25.39 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 11
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 16
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 4

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Iranian EFL teachers mostly allocated turns to students through directing gaze and by nominating them by name.

    “Iranian EFL teachers mostly allocated turns to their students through directing their gaze towards the students and by nominating them by their names.”
    • Also stated in: § 5. Discussion · plain
      “Iranian EFL teachers used “gazing” and “vocative nomination” more than other turn-allocation strategies in their classroom talks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Other gestures included moving eyes and heads from side to side and shaking hands, fingers, and chins.

    “They included: moving their eyes and heads from side to side and shaking their hands, fingers, and chins.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    In many cases, there was a combination of techniques like vocative + gazing, gazing + head nods, and pointing + head nods, which were excluded from analysis.

    “It is essential to note that, in many cases, there was a combination of techniques like vocative + gazing, gazing + head nods, and pointing + head nods and so forth, which are excluded from the analysis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Most of the time, EFL teachers give the turn to the next speaker and students rarely self-select.

    “Most of the times, these are the EFL teachers, who give the turn to the next speaker and students rarely self-select.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingnone given

    Teachers try to signal allocation of turn using both verbal and non-verbal techniques.

    “It was stated that teachers try to signal the allocation of the turn using both verbal and non-verbal techniques”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingreasoning

    Students usually wait for the teacher to transfer the turn by using different allocation strategies.

    “They usually wait for the teacher to transfer the turn by using different allocation strategies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Students' self-selections, bids for speaking turns, and their semiotic construction were left out of the analysis.

    “Moreover, the students”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    After analyzing the data, the participants carried out member checking to secure the principles of trustworthiness offered by Lincoln and Guba (1985).

    “After analyzing the data, the participants carried out member checking to secure the principles of trustworthiness offered by Lincoln and Guba (1985).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lincoln and Guba (1985) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    A second coder examined 30 percent of the data and extracted techniques to ensure inter-rater reliability (k=.95), as calculated by Cohen's Kappa coefficient.

    “Additionally, a second coder was asked to examine 30 percent of the data and extracted techniques in order to ensure inter-rater reliability (k=.95), as calculated by Cohen”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    A limited number of studies has explored teachers' turn-allocation strategies in their instructional interactions.

    “Nevertheless, a limited number of studies has explored teachers”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    An experienced university professor audited the whole process of data analysis to ensure the confirmability of the findings.

    “Likewise, an experienced university professor, who had taught and conducted research on discourse and pragmatics were plead to audit trial the whole process of data analysis to ensure the confirmability of the findings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    To prevent the threat of observer paradox and not be obtrusive, the researcher used videos recorded by the language institute's surveillance cameras that teachers were used to.

    “However, in order to prevent the threat of”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Teacher turn-allocations that occurred during individual and group work tasks were excluded from the analysis.

    “It should be noted that teacher turn-allocations that occurred during individual and group work tasks were excluded from the analysis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    A yawning gap exists in the EFL context of Iran regarding teachers' turn-allocation techniques or semiotic resources that they employ when constructing their turn-allocations.

    “Nevertheless, a yawning gap exists in the EFL context of Iran regarding teachers”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    EFL classes in Iran are not teacher-oriented or laden with teacher-talk.

    “which indicates that EFL classes in Iran are not teacher-oriented or laden with teacher-talk.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Kääntä (2010) found that teachers normally allocate turns to students via selected student's name and by aiming gaze towards him/her.

    “The findings of her study indicated that teachers normally allocate turns to students via the selected student”s name and by aiming their gaze towards him/her.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kääntä (2010)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A possible reason for frequent use of gazing might be the culture of teaching and learning in EFL classes in Iran.

    “A possible reason for this frequent use of gazing might be the culture of teaching and learning in EFL classes in Iran.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Eye contact is very important in Iranian culture.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The only data collection technique was video-recording.

    “Moreover, the only data collection technique in this study was video-recording, while a mixture of research instruments like observation, interview, think-aloud protocol, and questionnaires could also add to the richness of the data.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The corpus was limited to nine hours of English language teaching.

    “The corpus was limited to nine hours of English language teaching, while a larger corpus would end in richer findings.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationcitation

    The study depicts the highly creative and transformable nature of classroom discourse.

    “The most important contribution of the study is that it depicts the highly “creative and transformable nature of classroom discourse” (He, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites He, 2004

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Iranian EFL teachers utilize these resources in a dynamic and temporary unfolding participation-framework, which comprises multi-party interaction, and this exhibits how and when they discern who is bidding.

    “The interpretation that Iranian EFL teachers utilize these resources in a dynamic and temporary unfolding participation-framework, which comprises multi-party interaction, obviously exhibits how and when they discern who is bidding.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    By directing gaze towards class, teachers obtain understanding of who is attempting and who is not and whose gaze is directed towards teacher and whose is not.

    “By directing their gaze towards the class teachers obtain an understanding of who is attempting and who is not and whose gaze is directed towards the teacher and whose is not.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    This study has cast light on how classroom interaction differs and is shaped by a multiplicity of factors.

    “This study has, thus, casted light on how classroom interaction differs and is shaped by a multiplicity of factors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Teachers' turn-allocation strategies are by no means randomly produced, but instead they are significant interactional resources for organization of turn-taking and students' participation.

    “These signify the fact that teachers” turn-allocation strategies are by no means randomly produced, but instead they are significant interactional resources for the organization of turn-taking and the students” participation in classroom interaction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    EFL classroom interaction in Iran has its own peculiarities as it is a special discursive milieu.

    “In light of the findings of this study it can be concluded that EFL classroom interaction in the context of Iran has its own peculiarities as it is a especial discursive milieu.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The pattern of teacher turn-allocation and rare student self-selection is heavily rooted in Iranian culture.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationown data

    Results add to existing body of research on embodiment in classroom interactions along with strategies of allocating turn to next speaker.

    “The results also adds to the existing body of research on embodiment in classroom interactions along with strategies of allocating the turn to the next speaker.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The present study approved the importance of using gaze in management of turn-taking, as teachers would be unable to select next speakers if they cannot direct gaze towards class.

    “The present study approved the importance of using gaze in the management of turn-taking, as teachers would be unable to select the next speakers if they are not able to direct their gaze towards the class.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
27 of 27

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The five teachers and six classes from one language institute in Tehran are representative of Iranian EFL teachers generally.

    “The video-recorded corpus included six formal English classes each taking 90 minutes for a period of two months.”
    “The results of in-depth qualitative analysis indicated that Iranian EFL teachers used multiple resources to allocate the turn to their students.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Eye contact is very important in Iranian culture.

    “It means that, teachers look at the students when they are speaking to them as eye contact is very important in the Iranian culture.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The pattern of teacher turn-allocation and rare student self-selection is heavily rooted in Iranian culture.

    “This is heavily rooted in their culture.”
3 of 3

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Conflicting class-size ranges

    Major

    The methodology gives different minimum and maximum class sizes for the same study: 3 to 6 students in one section and 5 to 10 in another.

  • Conflicting numbers of teachers

    Minor

    The methodology says five Iranian EFL teachers taught the recorded classes, but the limitations section says the study gathered data from six EFL teachers.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 5

  1. Kääntä, L. (2015). The multimodal organization of teacher-led classroom interaction. In C. Jenks & P. Seedhouse (Eds.), International perspectives on ELT classroom interaction (pp. 64-83). Palgrave Macmillan.
  2. Klattenberg, R. (2020). Address terms as reproaches in EFL classroom management. In F. Lenz, M. Frobenius, & R. Klattenberg (Eds.), Classroom observation: Researching interaction in English language teaching (pp. 117- 144).
  3. Mortensen, K. (2008). Selecting next speaker in the second language classroom: How to find a willing next speaker in planned activities. Journal of Applied Linguistics, 5(1), 55-79. doi.org/10.1558/japl.v5i1.55 · DOI
  4. Xin, L., Luzheng, L., & Biru, S. (2011). EFL Classroom discourse analysis of a vocational college and some reflections. US-China Education. Review, 6, 752- 755.
  5. Zhang, Y., & Zhou, D. J. (2004). Study of students" participation pattern in college English classroom. Foreign Language World, 6(1), 28-33.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Ghiasvand, F., & PhD Candidate of Applied Linguistics, A. T. U.
Affiliations
Allameh Tabataba'i University (IR)
Corresponding author
Ghiasvand, Farhad
ORCID
Ghiasvand, Farhad
Venue
Language Related Research
Publisher
CMV Verlag
Published
2022-08-01
Volume
13
Issue
3
Pages
429-452
ISSN
  • 2322-3081 (ISSN-L)
  • 2383-0816
DOI
10.52547/lrr.13.3.17
OpenAlex
W4293833920
Semantic Scholar
84cf0ec2d609eb096ac3e576b13eac539e8229b1
Cited by
6
References
73
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 3
FWCI
3.75
Type
journal article
Language
fa
Open access
Licence
cc-by-nc
Locations
Language Related Research (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Language, Discourse, Communication Strategies
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Linguistics and Language Analysis
Keywords
classroom interaction, EFL teachers, Iranian EFL teachers, turn-taking, nonverbal communication, head nodding, pointing gestures, teacher-student relationship, pedagogical interaction

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