Budget Travel in the Mediterranean: A Methodology for Reconstructing Ancient Journeys through Least Cost Networks

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The undersample, rotate and oversample method allows the network of the Peloponnese containing over 10,000 km of LCPs to be created in 41 seconds on eight processing threads of a 2013 MacBook Pro.

“As an example, it allows the network of the Peloponnese (Figure 9) containing over 10,000 km of LCPs, to be created in 41 seconds on the eight processing threads of a 2013 MacBook Pro.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The λ = 7 LOS network maximized the number of distances for which LCPnet was within 5% of TP (33) and generated the median normalized difference closest to zero.

“This both maximized the number of distances for which LCPnet was within 5% of TP (33) and generated the median normalized difference closest to zero, whereas the best fit obtained using the GPO method had 29 instances of LCPnet within 5% of TP.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Both Bekker-Nielsen's and Sanders and Whitbread's β values are significantly lower than the β = 3.00 for our λ = 7 network for the Peloponnese.

“Both are significantly lower than the β = 3.00 for our λ = 7 network for the Peloponnese.”

The quote only partly states this claim.

The frequency plots of normalized difference between LCPnet and TP for λ = 4, 7 and 10 show a narrow peak superimposed on an approximately Gaussian distribution.

“In all the frequency plots in Figure 6, but especially so for λ = 7, a narrow peak is in evidence, superimposed on an approximately Gaussian distribution”

It may state two separate claims as one.

With n = 6, all points within a 13 × 13 square are reachable from the centre by straight-line paths with no deviation from a straight-line path, compared to 62% of points with the 48 neighbour method with up to 8% deviation.

“With n = 6, all points within a 13 × 13 square are reachable from the centre by straight-line paths with no deviation from a straight-line path, compared to 62% of points with the 48 neighbour method with up to 8% deviation (Herzog 2013).”

• cites Herzog 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The end result is a path constrained to follow the general route of the originally derived LCP, but allowing directional changes of about 45/n degrees, giving shorter paths and largely eliminating distance biases depending on the direction of destination relative to start.

“The end result is a path which is constrained to follow the general route of the originallyderived LCP, but in which directional changes of about 45/n degrees (e.g.7.5 degrees with n = 6) are allowed, giving shorter paths and, more importantly, largely eliminating distance biases depending on the direction of destination relative to start.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Troödos mountains in the interior of the western half of Cyprus force LCPs into valleys, with the result that even with large λ, routeways remain well defined and separate.

“The Troödos mountains in the interior of the western half of Cyprus force LCPs into valleys, with the result that even with large λ, routeways remain well defined and separate.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The rotate and oversample technique results in a modest increase in computational time (generally less than 10% relative to standard queen's move), whereas the 48 neighbour method would approximately quadruple the processing time for deriving the cost surface relative to queen's move.

“Because the sub-grids on which the second Dijkstra step is made are very small compared to the main DEM, it only results in a modest increase in computational time (generally less than 10% relative to standard queen's move), whereas the 48 neighbour method would approximately quadruple the processing time for deriving the cost surface relative to queen's move.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Pikoulas documented eight roads leading to Geronthrai, which compares well with the seven roads to Geronthrai generated by setting λ = 7.

“He documented, for instance, eight roads leading to Geronthrai, one of the poleis of Lakonike, which compares well with the seven roads to Geronthrai from surrounding nodes generated by setting λ = 7.”

• cites Pikoulas (2012)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Bekker-Nielsen's value of β = 1.31 for the Peloponnese can be replicated by using λ = 0.65, the resulting network having only three roads into Geronthrai.

“Bekker-Nielsen's value of β = 1.31 for the Peloponnese can be replicated by using λ = 0.65, the resulting network having only three roads into Geronthrai (Figure 8)”

• cites Bekker-Nielsen (2004: 225)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The rotation step solves the standard queen's move distance bias for travel on flat surfaces, leading to straight paths and isochrones in concentric circles rather than polygons.

“The rotation step solves the standard queen's move distance bias for travel on flat surfaces, leading to straight paths and isochrones in concentric circles rather than polygons.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

λ = 0.1 produces elements of Herzog's (2013) 'main routeway with later subsidiary pathway' model, with some settlements lying at the end of spurs leading off a main route.

“λ = 0.1 produces elements of Herzog's (2013) 'main routeway with later subsidiary pathway' model, with some settlements lying at the end of spurs leading off a main route.”

• cites Herzog 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The composite distribution has one larger population (N = 78.2, σ = 0.37) and one smaller population (N = 34.1, σ = 0.04).

“one larger (N = 78.2) and noisier (σ = 0.37), the other smaller (N = 34.1)and less noisy (σ = 0.04)”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Two of the values not accounted for in the Gaussian populations lie outside the plotted range, with errors up to a factor of 5.

“Two of the values not accounted for in the Gaussian populations lie outside of the plotted range shown, with errors up to a factor of 5.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The increase in average road section length from the 9% modification came partly by lengthening routes through switchbacks and partly by going around areas of high ground.

“partly by lengthening the routes through switchbacks and partly by going around areas of high ground.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In a comparison of over 10,000 km of LCPs in the Peloponnese, the rotate and oversample technique generated paths which were on average 3.5% shorter than those produced by the standard queen's move, with no bias in computed distance associated with average path direction.

“In a comparison of over 10,000 km of LCPs in the Peloponnese, the technique generated paths which were on average 3.5% shorter than those produced by the standard queen's move.More importantly, there is no bias in the computed distance associated with average path direction.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Increasing to 18 locations would have taken over three years using the same program, whilst the Crete example with its 29 locations would have required a period many times in excess of the age of the universe.

“Increasing this to 18 locations would have taken over three years using the same program, whilst the Crete example (Figure 11) with its 29 locations would have required a period many times in excess of the age of the universe.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In the Cyprus TSP, gradually reducing sea speed leads to a TSP solution which matches the given order of the actual itinerary; this first happens at 2.5 knots, close to midway between Whitewright's sailing ship speeds for favourable and unfavourable conditions.

“Gradually reducing sea speed leads to a TSP solution (bottom panel) which matches the given order of the actual itinerary; this first happens at 2.5 knots, close to midway between Whitewright's sailing ship speeds for favourable and unfavourable conditions.”

• cites WhitewrightNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Reducing the sea speed to 1.2 knots flips the TSP solution to a different configuration which in part reverts to the clockwise solution seen at speeds above 2.2 knots.

“Reducing the sea speed to 1.2 knots flips the TSP solution to a different configuration which in part reverts to the clockwise solution seen at speeds above 2.2 knots.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In the Crete TSP with 3.9 knot sea speed, the destinations are taken clockwise around the island with liberal use of boat trips between coastal settlements, and the group of six in the southwest is visited last rather than amongst the first, as in the actual itinerary.

“This produces an itinerary in which the destinations are taken clockwise around the island with liberal use of boat trips between coastal settlements and the group of six in the southwest visited last rather than amongst the first, as in the actual itinerary.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Mount Pachnes (2453 m) lies between the Araden/Anopolis area and Kydonia, forcing an indirect route which goes through Aptera, resulting in a double visit here.

“Mount Pachnes (2453 m) lies between the Araden/Anopolis area (numbers 8 and 9 in top map) and Kydonia (10), forcing an indirect route which goes through Aptera (11), resulting in a double visit here.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The order in which the start-point settlements is taken makes no difference to the final network.

“The order in which the start-point settlements is taken makes no difference to the final network.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The simpler Cyprus itinerary showed no sensitivity over the range of λ = 4 to 10, whilst the Crete itinerary showed an increase in threshold sea speed as the land network became more complex.

“The simpler Cyprus itinerary showed no sensitivity over this range, whilst that for Crete showed an increase in threshold sea speed as the land network became more complex.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

The middle map shows a travelling salesman solution for the fastest route starting at Salamis and finishing at Arsinoe using a standard ship speed of 3.9 knots, close to Whitewright's (2011) 'favourable conditions' velocity made good for a ship.

“The middle map shows a travelling salesman solution for the fastest route starting at Salamis and finishing at Arsinoe using a standard ship speed of 3.9 knots, close toWhitewright's (2011) 'favourable conditions' velocity made good for a ship”

• cites Whitewright's (2011)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

When the sea speed is reduced to 1.6 knots, around Whitewright's unfavourable conditions speed, an itinerary with no sea legs is produced, though the order in which the destinations are taken does not alter.

“When the sea speed is reduced to 1.6 knots, around Whitewright's unfavourable conditions speed, an itinerary with no sea legs is produced (not shown) though the order in which the destinations are taken does not alter.”

• cites WhitewrightNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

All roads in the simpler network are also in the more complex network.

“All roads in the simpler network are also in the more complex network.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The most computationally expensive part of the process, that of running Dijkstra's algorithm, is reduced by running it only on a subset of the cost matrix.

“The most computationally expensive part of the process, that of running Dijkstra's algorithm, is reduced by running it only on a subset of the cost matrix.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Solving the TSP by comparing all possible routes for the nine locations in Cyprus took about 0.006 seconds.

“we were able to solve the TSP by comparing all possible routes for the nine locations in Cyprus (Figure 10) in about 0.006 seconds.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

For networks of complexity λ=4,7,10, threshold sea speeds at which TSP routes become similar to Delphic theoroi routes are 2.5 knots for Cyprus and 1.9, 2.2, 2.3 knots for Crete.

“λ = 4 λ = 7 λ = 10 Cyprus 2.5 2.5 2.5 Crete 1.9 2.2 2.3 Table 1 Threshold sea speeds (knots) at which TSP routes become similar to Delphic theoroi routes for networks of different complexity (λ).”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

A small random perturbation of between plus and minus 1% added to distances between grid points changes journey times by much less than 1%.

“A small random perturbation of between plus and minus 1% is added to the distances between grid points resulting in trajectories which are not quite straight.Largely cancelling in aggregate, these perturbations change journey times by much less than 1%.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The TSP solution based on a more complex network of λ = 10 allows a more direct route between nodes 9 and 10 bypassing 11, though the overall order in which named destinations are visited is not changed.

“The TSP solution based on a more complex network of λ = 10 (not shown) allows a more direct route between nodes 9 and 10 bypassing 11, though the overall order in which named destinations are visited is not changed.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

For each of the cost functions (Tobler, modified Tobler, Naismith/Langmuir, Minetti), edge values depend only on distance and slope and are anisotropic.

“For each of these functions the edge values between points depend only on the distance and slope and are anisotropic, in other words they differ according to the slope in the direction of travel rather than simply depending on absolute slope.”

• cites Tobler 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Márquez-Pérez, Vallejo-Villalta & Álvarez-Francoso (2017) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Langmuir (1984)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Bekker-Nielsen quotes β = 1.31 to 1.35 for reconstructed Roman road networks in Gaul, northern Italy and Greece, and 'more than two' for the area around Carthage.

“He also quotes (p.225) β = 1.31 to 1.35 for reconstructed Roman road networks in Gaul, northern Italy and Greece, and 'more than two' for the area around Carthage.”

• cites Bekker-Nielsen (2004: 225)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The cost in loss of agricultural land is likely to exert a strong constraint against proliferation of roads in flat areas.

“Quite apart from considerations of travel and build costs, the cost in loss of agricultural land is likely to exert a strong constraint against such proliferation.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Taken with Rathmann's contention (2016) that the TP has Hellenistic origins, these observations support the use of the derived value of λ = 7 for the earlier period, so long as the network is reconstructed with contemporary nodes.

“Taken with Rathmann's contention (2016) that the TP has Hellenistic origins these observations support the use of the derived value of λ = 7 for this earlier period, so long as the network is reconstructed with contemporary nodes.”

• cites Rathmann (2016)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim.

Pikoulas (2007: 85) makes a similar point in relation to the road network of the Peloponnese and the rest of southern Greece, where there are no known exclusively Roman road constructions.

“Pikoulas (2007: 85) makes a similar point in relation to the road network of the Peloponnese and the rest of southern Greece, where there are no known exclusively Roman road constructions.”

• cites Pikoulas (2007: 85)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

No account is taken in this implementation of the costs of negotiating different land types or of crossing rivers.

“No account is taken in this implementation of the costs of negotiating different land types, e.g. the difficulties associated with marshy ground, or of crossing rivers.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Verbrugge (1976) found that all bar two of the major routes of Sicily were in place before the advent of the Romans, and that routes used by travellers and the imperial post show no signs of Roman engineering or realignment.

“Verbrugge (1976), in his study of the road network of Sicily, found that all bar two of the major routes of the island were in place before the advent of the Romans, and that the routes used by travellers and the imperial post show no signs of Roman engineering or realignment.”

• cites Verbrugge (1976)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Anisotropy is reflected in the fact that COST(i, j) ≠ COST(j, i) unless the surface is perfectly flat, which is the case with travel over water.

“Anisotropy is reflected in the fact that COST(i, j) ≠ COST(j, i) unless the surface is perfectly flat, which is the case with travel over water.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

Whereas there is a clear optimization methodology for individual LCPs, the cost, or efficiency, metric for network optimization is less well defined.

“Whereas there is a clear optimization methodology for individual LCPs, the cost, or efficiency, metric for network optimization is less well defined.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Verhagen, Polla & Frommer (2014) point out that cost functions commonly used to derive LCPs are not necessarily applicable to a road designed for wheeled transport, particularly in respect of differences in coping with slopes.

“Verhagen, Polla & Frommer (2014) point out that the cost functions commonly used to derive LCPs are not necessarily applicable to a road designed for wheeled transport, particularly in respect of the differences in coping with slopes”

• cites Verhagen, Polla & Frommer (2014)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Taking all LCPs of 10 Roman miles or less minimized the risk of indirect routes through intermediate nodes and of copyist omission errors.

“We took all LCPs of 10 Roman miles or less to minimize the risk of indirect routes through intermediate nodes and of copyist omission errors, and they matched their TP equivalents to less than half a percent.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

To model a multi-stage journey, a network of individual routes must be considered.

“However, to model a multi-stage journey, a network of individual routes must be considered.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The comparisons in the calibration are not made against truth, which cannot be known, but against the LCP network, which has its own bias and noise.

“Ultimately, consideration of the quality of the TP data should be made in light of the fact that the comparisons here are not made against truth, which cannot be known, but against the LCP network, which doubtless has its own bias and noise.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

Humans tend to economize many aspects of their behaviour, seeking the easiest path requiring minimum cost.

“Following the 'Principle of Least Effort' (Zipf 1949), Surface -Evans & White (2012) state that least cost analysis is predicated on the assumption that humans 'tend to economize many aspects of their behaviour'.”

• cites Zipf 1949Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Surface-Evans & White (2012)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The complexity of the network is a strong determinant of how direct longer routes or itineraries are.

“The complexity of the network is a strong determinant of how direct longer routes or itineraries are, so to recreate the degree of connectedness of settlements across a wide region in the ancient world, a suitable network must be created.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

Standard LCP generation suffers from four issues: failure to consider anisotropic costs; the choice of appropriate hiking functions; the limitations of spreading algorithms to accumulate cost; and the absence of calibration and validation of results.

“Bevan lists four such issues associated with the generation of least cost surfaces: failure to consider anisotropic costs (i.e.ones that vary according to direction of movement); the choice of appropriate hiking functions; the limitations of spreading algorithms to accumulate cost; and the absence of calibration and validation of results.”

• cites Bevan 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

This contrasts with the findings of Prignano et al. (2019) in relation to road networks of Iron Age Etruria, though the difference could be explained by the much larger area considered here.

“This contrasts with the findings of Prignano et al. (2019) in relation to road networks of Iron Age Etruria, though the difference could be explained by the fact that here we are considering a much larger area.”

• cites Prignano et al. (2019) sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

There are advantages to keeping models simple as they are easy to understand and test under controlled conditions.

“However, as Bevan (2013) argues, there are advantages to keeping models simple as they are easy to understand and test under controlled conditions.”

• cites Bevan (2013)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The modelled distribution approximates the observed one well, indicating that 98.1% of the observed frequency within bins can be explained by the idealized distributions.

“gives confidence that the modelled distribution approximates the observed one well, indicating that 98.1% of the observed frequency within bins can be explained by the idealized distributions.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The modified Tobler function has a critical slope for cost-saving zig-zagging of 27%, as defined by Llobera & Sluckin's (2007) equation 20.

“The modified Tobler function has a critical slope for cost-saving zig-zagging of 27%, as defined by Llobera & Sluckin's (2007) equation 20.”

• cites Llobera & Sluckin's (2007) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It may state two separate claims as one.

The small sample size (5) means too much should not be read into the match, though it gives no evidence of systematic divergence between direct LCP distances and TP values.

“Too much should not be read into this because of the small sample size (5), though it certainly gives no evidence of systematic divergence between direct LCP distances and TP values.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

Verbrugge concludes that where the Romans found an adequate road network they made few attempts to improve or extend it.

“He concludes that where they found an adequate road network they made few attempts to improve or extend it.”

• cites Verbrugge (1976)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim.

The minimum total cost methodology generalizes the concepts of competing costs into a system in which least cost to the builder and least cost to the user fall out as the extremes of one technique, and allows all gradations in between.

“Here we introduce a methodology that addresses these notional costs, which we call minimum total cost.It generalizes the concepts of competing costs into a system in which least cost to the builder and least cost to the user fall out as the extremes of one technique, and allows all gradations in between.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Build costs are continuous, spread over an extended period of time, like travel costs.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Build cost per unit length of road is proportional to the time or energetic cost of travelling that length.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Traffic volume effects on travel and build costs cancel out in the ratio b/t.

Probably not a substantial claim.

Bekker-Nielsen (2004: 200) states that the Romans did not generally include the extra distance resulting from switchbacks in their surveyed distances.

“Bekker-Nielsen (2004: 200) states that the Romans did not generally include the extra distance resulting from switchbacks in their surveyed distances”

• cites Bekker-Nielsen (2004: 200)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Techniques such as triangulation or proximal point analysis produce results which seem heuristically to be a compromise between the extremes of least cost to the user and least cost to the builder, but fail to balance building and using costs formally.

“Techniques such as triangulation or proximal point analysis produce results which seem heuristically to be a compromise between the extremes of least cost to the user and least cost to the builder (Herzog 2014b;Groenhuijzen & Verhagen 2017), but fail to balance building and using costs formally.”

• cites Herzog 2014bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Groenhuijzen & Verhagen 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim.

A methodology for generating networks of such paths is introduced based on a tradeoff between building and travel costs, minimizing the total cost.

“A methodology for generating networks of such paths is introduced based on a tradeoff between building and travel costs, minimizing the total cost.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

For our purposes the distinction between the two sources of error is not of great importance since our main interest is in generating realistic edge costs between nodes regardless of how that is achieved.

“However, for our purposes the distinction between the two sources of error is not of great importance since our main interest is in generating realistic edge costs between nodes regardless of how that is achieved.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

An upper limit of 36 hours on a single journey over water means routes are allowed across the Aegean Sea (aided by island hopping) but journeys across the Ionian Sea were restricted to the narrower part between Epirus and Italy, consistent with a practice of cabotage.

“An upper limit was placed on the amount of time allowed for a single journey over water of 36 hours which means that whilst routes are allowed across the Aegean Sea (aided by island hopping), journeys across the Ionian Sea were restricted to the narrower part between Epirus and Italy, consistent with a practice of cabotage, or not straying too far from the coast”

• cites Constantakopoulou 2007: 176Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Rougé 1966: 173Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim.

Verhagen, Polla & Frommer (2014) estimate that a mule-drawn cart with a load of 500 kg would be unable to get in motion on a slope of greater than 9%, based on an equation by Raepsaet (2002).

“and estimate that a mule-drawn cart with a load of 500 kg would be unable to get in motion on a slope of greater than 9%, based on an equation by Raepsaet (2002).”

• cites Verhagen, Polla & Frommer (2014)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Raepsaet (2002)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Since journeys are more commonly undertaken in summer, sea breeze effects are frequently likely to generate winds at odds with climatological open-sea values, giving a fairly reliable onshore wind component for much of the day regardless of large-scale prevailing wind.

“Since these journeys are more commonly undertaken in summer, sea breeze effects are frequently likely to generate winds at odds with the climatological, open-sea values, giving a fairly reliable onshore wind component for much of the day regardless of the largescale prevailing wind.”

• cites Heikell (2018)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Hsu (1988)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Tobler's hiking function is about 23% faster than the Modified Tobler function when walking on the flat, and using it would suggest sea speeds faster in proportion (about 2.5 to 3.0 knots).

“Tobler's hiking function (Tobler 1993) is about 23% faster than the Modified Tobler function when walking on the flat, and using it would suggest sea speeds faster in proportion (about 2.5 to 3.0 knots).”

• cites Tobler 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

In reality, a whole host of costs can simultaneously be attributed to travel including monetary expenditure, organizational effort, and, along with a direct energetic cost, the mental and physical stress of a journey.

“In reality, a whole host of costs can simultaneously be attributed to travel including monetary expenditure, organizational effort, and, along with a direct energetic cost, the mental and physical stress of a journey.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Such treatments are necessarily approximate since there will be geographically and temporally varying costs, e.g. of piracy and shipwreck, which would require a higher order of complexity to represent.

“Of course, such treatments are necessarily approximate since there will be geographically and temporally varying costs, e.g. of piracy and shipwreck, which would require a higher order of complexity to represent.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

According to Heikell (2018), Mediterranean sea breezes set in during the morning and last till evening, blowing onshore and extending as much as 50 miles out to sea.

“According to Heikell (2018), such winds in the Mediterranean set in during the morning and last till evening, blowing onshore and extending as much as 50 miles out to sea.”

• cites Heikell (2018)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

A source of data on node locations, such as Pleiades, is necessary along with a suitable DEM and some means of estimating an appropriate network complexity metric, λ.

“A source of data on node locations, such as Pleiades, is necessary along with a suitable DEM and some means of estimating an appropriate network complexity metric, λ.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

The DTL itineraries are considered more useful than an account of a one-off journey since they result from the experience of regular journeys over multiple years during which there will have been ample opportunity for fine tuning.

“However, the DTL itineraries are considered more useful than an account of a one-off journey since they result from the experience of regular journeys over multiple years during which there will have been ample opportunity for fine tuning.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

For full accuracy, LCPs may be derived at full resolution using the rotate and oversample method.

“For full accuracy, LCPs may be derived at full resolution using the rotate and oversample method (Figure 1).”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Capturing the sea-land breeze cycle in a quantitative way is very challenging because the effect tends to cancel out over any averaging period of 24 hours or more and numerical models used in generating climatologies are generally too coarse to represent such small-scale effects.

“Capturing the cycle in a quantitative way, however, is very challenging because the effect tends to cancel out over any averaging period of 24 hours or more and the numerical models used in generating such climatologies are generally too coarse to represent such small-scale effects.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

When ancient travellers made journeys, it seems likely that their choice of route and mode of travel would be made not just on the basis of time or effort, but on an amalgam of costs as outlined above.

“When ancient travellers made journeys, it seems likely that their choice of route and mode of travel would be made not just on the basis of time or effort, but on an amalgam of costs as outlined above.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

There is no representation of rivers either as conduits for travel by boat or as barriers to land travel, mainly because of the extra layers of complexity in implementation that this would have entailed.

“There is no representation of rivers either as conduits for travel by boat or as barriers to land travel, mainly because of the extra layers of complexity in implementation that this would have entailed.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The actual travelling time may have been different from that derived by using the virtual speed as an actual speed.

“The actual travelling time may have been different from that derived by using the virtual speed as an actual speed.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

When using the Delphic theorodokoi lists to weight the relative speeds of land and sea travel, it is really a virtual speed which we are ascertaining since these routes are likely to have been established over many years with a view to minimizing all costs, not simply that of time.

“When using the Delphic theorodokoi lists to weight the relative speeds of land and sea travel, it is really a virtual speed which we are ascertaining since these routes are likely to have been established over many years with a view to minimizing all costs, not simply that of time.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

The GPO method is efficient from the point of view of coding and replicates a network evolution whereby decisions about where to build the next road are made collectively at a network-wide level on the basis of which pair of settlements across the network will benefit most.

“The GPO method is efficient from the point of view of coding and replicates a network evolution whereby decisions about where to build the next road are made collectively at a network-wide level on the basis of which pair of settlements across the network will benefit most.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Testing each link on all settlement linkages simultaneously would involve running Dijkstra's algorithm on the full network many times, so would be prohibitively expensive.

“However, this would involve running Dijkstra's algorithm on the full network many times, so would be prohibitively expensive.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

Given the evidence that the Modified Tobler function is more accurate, the lower range (2.0 to 2.5 knots) is preferred.

“However, given the evidence that the Modified Tobler function is more accurate (Márquez-Pérez, Vallejo-Villalta & Álvarez-Francoso 2017; Seifried & Gardner 2019) the lower range is preferred.”

• cites Márquez-Pérez, Vallejo-Villalta & Álvarez-Francoso 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Seifried & Gardner 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

Whilst these eventualities will not materialize on most journeys, even a low probability that they might can be treated as a continuous cost.

“Whilst these eventualities will not materialize on most journeys, even a low probability that they might can be treated as a continuous cost.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The LOS method differs from the GPO method in placing the decision-making for road building at the level of the individual settlement, with regard only to optimization of routes from each settlement separately.

“The LOS method differs from the GPO method in placing the decision-making for road building at the level of the individual settlement, with regard only to optimization of routes from each settlement separately.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Gal, Saaroni & Cvikel concede that their approach works principally for direct runs over open sea and that a separate method is required for modelling sea-breeze assisted coastal sailing.

“However, they concede that this works principally for direct runs over open sea and that a separate method is required for modelling sea-breeze assisted coastal sailing.”

• cites Gal, Saaroni & Cvikel (2021) sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

It may state two separate claims as one.

At night and into the first part of the morning a weaker land breeze, blowing offshore, predominates, easing an early-morning exit from a harbour, with the transition to the onshore sea breeze often being highly predictable.

“At night and into the first part of the morning a weaker land breeze, blowing offshore, predominates, easing an early-morning exit from a harbour, the transition to the onshore sea breeze often being highly predictable.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Perlman (1995: 130) states that about a dozen names lost from the theorodokoi inscription's fourth column, between Oaxos and Hierapytna, are probably from northeast Crete.

“It is stated by Perlman (1995: 130) that about a dozen names lost from the theorodokoi inscription's fourth column, between Oaxos and Hierapytna, are probably from northeast Crete.”

• cites Perlman (1995: 130)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

The time costs represented by these speeds can also be taken as proxies for a number of other considerations such as monetary cost, physical effort, organizational difficulties and risks associated with the different modes of travel, and the speeds of land and sea travel would better be considered as virtual rather than actual speeds.

“It should be borne in mind that the time costs represented by these speeds can also be taken as proxies for a number of other considerations such as monetary cost, physical effort, organizational difficulties and risks associated with the different modes of travel, and that the speeds of land and sea travel would better be considered as virtual rather than actual speeds”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

λ could be derived through other means such as tuning to an estimated β value.

“This could be done, as here, by using a dataset of internode road distances, though it could also be derived through other means such as tuning to an estimated β value.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

A sea speed of 2.0 to 2.5 knots fits centrally in Whitewright's (2011) range of speeds for ships of the first century BCE and is consistent with de Soto (2019: 281) who estimates an average speed of 2.3 knots for coasting journeys.

“In addition to fitting centrally in Whitewright's (2011) range of speeds for ships of the first century BCE, it is consistent with de Soto (2019: 281) who estimates an average speed of 2.3 knots for coasting journeys.”

• cites Whitewright (2011)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites de Soto (2019: 281) sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

It is possible to lift this constraint in a variant of the scheme.

“It is possible to lift this constraint in a variant of the scheme.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Theorodokoi acted as hosts for religious delegates (theoroi) visiting from afar, and cities which sent out these delegates kept lists inscribed in stone for public display containing the names of the theorodokoi they would call upon, alongside the names of their cities.

“Theorodokoi acted as hosts for religious delegates (theoroi) visiting from afar, and cities which sent out these delegates kept lists inscribed in stone for public display containing the names of the theorodokoi they would call upon, alongside the names of their cities.”

• cites Perlman 1995Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Plassart 1921 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

Such lists were usually organized geographically and within them some itineraries can be inferred.

“Such lists were usually organized geographically and within them some itineraries can be inferred (Perlman 2000;Rutherford 2013).”

• cites Perlman 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Rutherford 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

No account of prevailing winds or currents was taken, mainly for simplicity, but also on the basis that the majority of edges represent journeys close to land.

“No account of prevailing winds or currents was taken, as is done e.g. in the ORBIS tool (https://history.stanford. edu/publications/orbis-stanford-geospatial-network-model- roman-world), mainly for the sake of simplicity, but also on the basis that the majority of edges represent journeys close to land.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The majority of edges represent journeys close to land.

Probably not a substantial claim.

The TSP is an asymmetric travelling salesman problem because costs between nodes vary with direction.

“Specifically, this is an asymmetric travelling salesman problem because costs between nodes vary with direction.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

For maximum convenience at the expense of significant loss of accuracy, geodesic (straight-line) distances could have been used.

“For maximum convenience at the expense of significant loss of accuracy, geodesic (straight-line) distances could have been used.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Kaudos is inserted as an end point since it seems that the itinerary then continued with Cyrene in Libya.

“Kaudos is inserted as an end point since it seems that the itinerary then continued with Cyrene in Libya.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The different costs on the denominator have different units, though could all be converted to the same units given a suitable conversion factor in the same way that in modern-day economics a life is assigned a monetary cost when making decisions on spending on transport safety measures.

“Clearly, the different costs on the denominator have different units, though could all be converted to the same units given a suitable conversion factor in the same way that in modern-day economics a life is assigned a monetary cost when making decisions on spending on transport safety measures (Hauer 1994).”

• cites Hauer 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

We can do so approximately and with minimal complexity by introducing the concept of virtual speed.

“However, we can do so approximately and with minimal complexity by introducing the concept of virtual speed.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

Time measured in elapsed days needs to be calculated separately since this depends on the spacing of nodes in the network, with routes which go through nodes conveniently separated by a day's walk over land making more efficient use of travel time.

“Another consideration is that time measured in elapsed days needs to be calculated separately since this depends on the spacing of nodes in the network, with routes which go through nodes conveniently separated by a day's walk over land making more efficient use of travel time.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

When calculating the cost surfaces for the purposes of establishing LCPs, the most easily quantified costs are time or energetic output.

“When calculating the cost surfaces for the purposes of establishing LCPs, the most easily quantified costs are time or energetic output.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The technique could be made more comprehensively global if the establishment of each link were tested on the basis of the benefit it conferred not just on the pair of settlements it links but on all settlement linkages simultaneously.

“The technique could be made more comprehensively global if the establishment of each link were tested on the basis of the benefit it conferred not just on the pair of settlements it links but on all settlement linkages simultaneously.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

It may be appropriate to include in the hiking model the effects of other terrain costs where terrain height is not considered to be the main determinant in the choice of routes.

“it may be appropriate to include in the hiking model the effects of other terrain costs where terrain height is not considered to be the main determinant in the choice of routes.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

The GPO method has similarities to the EE (equitable efficiency) model of Prignano et al. (2019), though they choose the next path on the basis of that which has the lowest FGCOST/COST and do not weigh the benefit and building cost of each path.

“The GPO method has some similarities to the EE (equitable efficiency) model of Prignano et al. (2019), though they choose the next path on the basis of that which has the lowest FGCOST/COST and do not weigh the benefit and building cost of each path.”

• cites Prignano et al. (2019) sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

A second class of cost is the risk of mishap, such as falling prey to pirates or brigands, or of shipwreck.

“A second class of cost is the risk of mishap, such as falling prey to pirates or brigands, or of shipwreck.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

The same principles outlined in this paper could be applied to other geographic areas, such as the wider Roman empire, as well as to later or earlier periods.

“The same principles outlined in this paper could be applied to other geographic areas, such as the wider Roman empire, as well as to later or earlier periods.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Use of ancient lakes and coastlines to modify the DEM is not necessarily a prerequisite of successful application of the technique.

“Use of ancient lakes and coastlines to modify the DEM is not necessarily a prerequisite of successful application of the technique”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Applying a uniform value is equivalent to the approximation entailed in using a set sea speed without regard for the geographical and seasonal variation in winds and currents.

“Applying a uniform value is equivalent to the approximation entailed in using a set sea speed without regard for the geographical and seasonal variation in winds and currents.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

Two itineraries from the DTL are used to calibrate the sea speed, one for Cyprus and the other Crete, island itineraries being specifically chosen as they are more likely to allow both land and sea route options.

“Two itineraries from the DTL are used here to calibrate the sea speed, one for Cyprus and the other Crete, island itineraries being specifically chosen as they are more likely to allow both land and sea route options.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Since the Athens-Delphi route was taken as a symbolic procession, the overland itinerary may well have been followed for considerations which go beyond those of travel cost, though at the same time could have evolved originally for such reasons.

“Since this route was taken as a symbolic procession (Rutherford 2013: 183), the overland itinerary may well have been followed for considerations which go beyond those of travel cost, though at the same time could have evolved originally for such reasons.”

• cites Rutherford 2013: 183Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.

It is not easy to represent these costs without introducing complexity, much less to quantify them accurately.

“It is not easy to represent these costs without introducing complexity, much less to quantify them accurately.”