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Gender differences in caregiving among family - caregivers of people with mental illnesses
Open accessAbstract
All over the world women are the predominant providers of informal care for family members with chronic medical conditions or disabilities, including the elderly and adults with mental illnesses. It has been suggested that there are several societal and cultural demands on women to adopt the role of a family-caregiver. Stress-coping theories propose that women are more likely to be exposed to caregiving stressors, and are likely to perceive, report and cope with these stressors differently from men. Many studies, which have examined gender differences among family-caregivers of people with mental illnesses, have concluded that women spend more time in providing care and carry out personal-care tasks more often than men. These studies have also found that women experience greater mental and physical strain, greater caregiver-burden, and higher levels of psychological distress while providing care. However, almost an equal number of studies have not found any differences between men and women on these aspects. This has led to the view that though there may be certain differences between male and female caregivers, most of these are small in magnitude and of doubtful clinical significance. Accordingly, caregiver-gender is thought to explain only a minor proportion of the variance in negative caregiving outcomes. A similar inconsistency characterizes the explanations provided for gender differences in caregiving such as role expectations, differences in stress, coping and social support, and response biases in reporting distress. Apart from the equivocal and inconsistent evidence, there are other problems in the literature on gender differences in caregiving. Most of the evidence has been derived from studies on caregivers of elderly people who either suffer from dementia or other physical conditions. Similar research on other mental illnesses such as schizophrenia or mood disorders is relatively scarce. With changing demographics and social norms men are increasingly assuming roles as caregivers. However, the experience of men while providing care has not been explored adequately. The impact of gender on caregiving outcomes may be mediated by several other variables including patient-related factors, socio-demographic variables, and effects of kinship status, culture and ethnicity, but these have seldom been considered in the research on gender differences. Finally, it is apparent that methodological variations in samples, designs and assessments between studies contribute a great deal to the observed gender differences. This review highlights all these issues and concludes that there is much need for further research in this area if the true nature of gender differences in family-caregiving of mental illnesses is to be discerned.
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In the citing paper
“the burgeoning recent literature on informal caregiving has highlighted that this role is mostly assumed by females in a wide array of conditions including advanced cancer [28,29,30,31].”
From Failures in Reflective Functioning and Reported Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression in Bereaved Individuals: A Study on a Sample of Family Caregivers of Palliative Care Patients (2022) · cites this paper as [30]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Prior research suggests that female carers tend to spend more time in caregiving and often have to play multiple conflicting roles 57 resulting in greater psychological distress compared to male carers 11,58,59 .”
From Anxiety in Informal Dementia Carers: A Meta-Analysis of Prevalence (2020) · cites this paper as [57]
In the citing paper
“The current literature also highlights that there may be some other potential factors which may have an impact on psychological difficulties experienced by carers such as the time spent on caregiving, role conflicts (e.g., being mother, employee, and carer), and types of caregiving tasks involved (i.e., the level of impairment and independence) 57 .”
From Anxiety in Informal Dementia Carers: A Meta-Analysis of Prevalence (2020) · cites this paper as [57]
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Sivakumar, S. P., Palanisamy, B., & Sree, S. (2026) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-026-07439-1 · Cited by 1
“These findings reflect gendered life-course inequalities rooted in differential access to education, employment and property ownership, which have been widely documented in Indian aging research [33, 71].”
Campos, B. M., Cho, T., Lai, W., Smith, J., & Choi, H. (2026) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.1177/13872877251394339 · Cited by 1
Jain, S., Ang, T. F. A., Sunderaraman, P., Au, R., & Chen, J. (2026) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-026-27524-9 · Cited by 1
“These challenges disproportionately affect women, who are more likely than men to cut their working hours or quit jobs to fulfill caregiver responsibilities [26, 55].”
Ku, T.-L., Block, L., Ford, J. H., Wu, S.-Y., & Huang, Y.-J. (2026) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-026-07696-0 · Cited by 1
“The predominance of female PCGs in this study also reflects broader gendered patterns in family caregiving reported internationally [54, 55].”
Chew, N., Kong, G., Cader, F. A., Chen, Y., Chong, B., Chow, C. K., Goh, R. J. L., Grey, C., Guo, Y., Himan, H. R., et al. (2026) · The Lancet Regional Health - Western Pacific · doi:10.1016/j.lanwpc.2026.101902 · Cited by 1
“258 Furthermore, the shrinking labour force and productivity in the working-age population due to limited access to high-quality health care services will affect the country’s ability to address dependency ratios and benefit from the demographic dividend.”
Lee, Y.-S., Roh, S., Moon, H. E., Steele, J. S., Yoon, D. P., & Warne, D. K. (2026) · Journal of Applied Gerontology · doi:10.1177/07334648261459708 · Cited by 1
Aging and the Ethics of Longevity Science
Farrelly, C. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780197830062.001.0001 · Cited by 2
Boluda-Verdú, I., Ayala, A., Rodríguez‐Blázquez, C., & Forjaz, M. J. (2026) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.inpsyc.2026.100237 · Cited by 1
Tian, L., & Drentea, P. (2026) · Research on Aging · doi:10.1177/01640275261470575 · Cited by 1
Caregivers’ sleep of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy’s patients: a short review
Nozoe, K. T., Araujo, P., Tufik, S., Moreira, G. A., & Andersen, M. L. (2017) · Translational Brain Rhythmicity · doi:10.15761/tbr.1000116 · Cited by 1
Gender and Schizophrenia: Are Differences Biological or Social?
Mahapatra, A., & Deshpande, S. N. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-5393-6_8 · Cited by 1
Professional agency vs consumer directed care workers: Outcomes in managed care
Veet, C. A., Winger, M. E., & Kinsky, S. M. (2021) · Health & Social Care in the Community · doi:10.1111/hsc.13488 · Cited by 1
Persistence of the norm of filial obligation among Chilean adults
Fernández, M. B., & Herrera, M. S. (2021) · Families Relationships and Societies · doi:10.1332/204674321x16322326159074 · Cited by 1
Paul, S. S., & Schröder‐Butterfill, E. (2022) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology · doi:10.1007/s10823-022-09455-1 · Cited by 1
“Other studies found that women showed more signs of burden and psychiatric morbidities, like depression and anxiety (Pattanayak et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2016; Yee & Schulz, 2000).”
ResultDemanslı Bireye Bakım Verenlerin Cinsiyetinin Bakım Veren Öz Yeterliliği Üzerine Etkisi
Özgül, E., & Söylemez, B. A. (2022) · Gümüşhane Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.37989/gumussagbil.943585 · Cited by 1
Care–life balance: a new normal for men too?
Prinzellner, Y., Simon, A., Drachmann, D., Ghanem, M., Münter, L., & Yghemonos, S. (2023) · International Journal of Care and Caring · doi:10.1332/239788221x16789016484824 · Cited by 1
L’Heureux, J., McTaggart-Cowan, H. M., Johns, G., Chen, L., Steiner, T. S., Tocher, P., Sun, H., & Zhang, W. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115999 · Cited by 1
Colombo, D., Zagni, E., Rossini, P. M., Cioccio, L. D., Gragnaniello, D., di Cortemiglia, E. L., Attar, M., Simoni, L., Haggiag, S., & Bernabei, R. (2023) · Health Care For Women International · doi:10.1080/07399332.2023.2223147 · Cited by 1
“…over 70% of impaired elderly are cared at home by family members (Alzheimer’s Association, 2016, pp. 459–509; Papastavrou et al., 2009, pp. 41–53; Sharma et al., 2016, pp. 7–17), who in most cases are women, either wives or daughters (Mielke et al., 2014, pp. 37–48; Sharma et al., 2016, pp.…”
BackgroundInfluentialTrofin, C.-S., & Iacob, C. I. (2023) · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1080/20473869.2023.2236797 · Cited by 1
“Females take on most caregiving tasks, especially in collectivistic or developing countries (Sharma et al. 2016, Pharr et al. 2014), such as Romania.”
Patil, A. S., & Kale, S. S. (2023) · Nepal Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.3126/njn.v20i2.52376 · Cited by 1
Wasmani, A., Rahnama, M., Abdollahimohammad, A., & Noorisanchooli, H. (2023) · Magna Scientia Advanced Biology and Pharmacy · doi:10.30574/msabp.2023.9.2.0051 · Cited by 1
“The majority of caregivers were women, which is consistent with the findings of the study by Kaur (11), Sharma (18), which were attributed to cultural factors that women are typically responsible for caring the other family members who are disabled, sick, child, or elder, as part of their domestic chores.”
ResultBamber, M. D., Solatikia, F., Gaillard, P., & Spratling, R. G. (2023) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-023-10081-5 · Cited by 1
“…affect but lower levels of QOL and trait mindfulness in comparison to informal caregivers caring for children without SHCN. Additionally, trait mind-fulness had significant indirect effects on the relationships caregiver burden than male caregivers (Sharma et al., 2016; Swinkels et al., 2019).”
BackgroundSameera, T. A., Jose, L. K., Vidyadharan, V., & Saleem, T. K. (2023) · Kerala Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.30834/kjp.36.1.2023.350 · Cited by 1
Im, H., George, N., & Swan, L. E. T. (2023) · Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health · doi:10.1007/s10903-023-01546-6 · Cited by 1
“Gendered expectations for care burdens for family and suppressive self-care practice, for example, leads to negligence of health among women [53 , 54].”
Communication with cancer patients: the perspective of caregivers versus non-caregivers in Iran
Naghavi, A., Salimi, S., Rief, W., & von Blanckenburg, P. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1239410 · Cited by 1
“Although it is not surprising as female consists of the majority of caregivers around the world (Sharma et al., 2016), the generalization of the study results to the male caregivers in Iran should be done with caution.”
BackgroundThe association between couples' education and gender gap in unpaid care work in India
Tripathi, S., & Zhai, F. (2023) · Social Policy and Administration · doi:10.1111/spol.12975 · Cited by 1
Ponnuchamy, L., Kumar, S. S., Majhi, G., & Venkataraman, P. (2023) · Industrial Psychiatry Journal · doi:10.4103/ipj.ipj_192_23 · Cited by 1
“[30,31] Occupational distress is seen to increase the risks for common and even severe psychiatric disorders, contributing to absenteeism, stigma, and eventually poverty.”
Alreshidi, S. M. (2023) · INQUIRY The Journal of Health Care Organization Provision and Financing · doi:10.1177/00469580231219590 · Cited by 1
“38,39 However, as we did not have any prior studies supporting gender variations in the correlation between BMI and depressive symptoms, we did not posit any a priori hypothesis in this regard.”
BackgroundSilva, D. F. L., & Pereira, É. L. (2024) · Journal of Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1177/17446295241227123 · Cited by 1
“This care is mostly provided by mothers or other women in the family, although it is not always enough for maintaining quality of life (Sharma et al., 2016; Mathias et al., 2018).”
Kiarie, J. N., Mambo, S., & Kamundi, G. K. (2024) · International Journal of Community Medicine and Public Health · doi:10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20240034 · Cited by 1
Guertin, J. R., Gilbert‐Ouimet, M., Dugas, M., Carnovale, V., Jalbert, L., Svyntozelska, O., Demers, J., Matteau, L., Bergeron, F., & LeBlanc, A. (2024) · ClinicoEconomics and Outcomes Research · doi:10.2147/ceor.s443077 · Cited by 1
Bridging the Gap: Understanding Gender Disparities in Geriatric Health and Care
Indhumathi, S., & Binu Sahayam, D. (2024) · Universal Journal of Public Health · doi:10.13189/ujph.2024.120106 · Cited by 1
Yorulmaz, E., & Di̇ri̇k, G. (2023) · Türk Psikoloji Dergisi · doi:10.31828/turkpsikoloji.1349743 · Cited by 1
“However, it is stated that today, with the change in demographic characteristics and social norms, more men are also caregivers (Sharma, Chakrabarti, & Grover, 2016).”
Schefter, Z. J., & Smith, A. (2024) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2024.111611 · Cited by 1
Sridhar, A., & Kuriakose, H. (2024) · Working with Older People · doi:10.1108/wwop-03-2024-0015 · Cited by 4
Lev‐Ari, R. K., Solomon, Z., & Horesh, D. (2024) · European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1016/j.ejtd.2024.100439 · Cited by 1
Assessment of Stigma among Caregivers of Armed Forces Professionals Suffering from Mental Illness
Bhattacharya, C., Kumar, S., Sinha, A. K., Ahmad, P., Ahmad, S., Singh, H., & Ahmad, A. (2024) · Journal of Marine Medical Society · doi:10.4103/jmms.jmms_41_24 · Cited by 1
Understanding Experiences and Challenges of the ‘Ageing’ Informal Caregiver of Persons with Dementia
Parthasarathy, A. (2024) · Asian Perspectives on Public Health. · doi:10.1007/978-981-97-4449-7_9 · Cited by 1
Gender differences in the French Caribbean nursing homes
Boucaud‐Maitre, D., Vainqueur, L., Letchimy, L., Bonnet, M., Simo, N., Dramé, M., & Tabué-Teguo, M. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-90740-7 · Cited by 4
Wangliu, Y., & Li, X. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-07603-7 · Cited by 1
“Conversely, older males may find it challenging to assume caregiving responsibilities when their wives experience functional limitations, influenced by traditional gender roles and notions of masculinity (Sharma et al., 2016).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Sharma, N., Chakrabarti, S., & Grover, S.
- Affiliations
- Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (IN)
- Corresponding author
- Chakrabarti, Subho
- Venue
- World Journal of Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Baishideng Publishing Group Inc.
- Published
- 2016
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 7
- ISSN
- 2220-3206 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4804270
- OpenAlex
- W2311849209
- Cited by
- 865
- References
- 123
- Citations by year
- 2026: 119 · 2025: 138 · 2024: 121 · 2023: 100 · 2022: 104 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 73 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 3
- FWCI
- 43.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by-nc
- Locations
- World Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Family Caregiving in Mental Illness
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Research and Theory › Nursing care and research
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Intergenerational Family Dynamics and Caregiving
- Keywords
- gender differences, family caregivers, mental illness, informal care, caregiver burden, psychological distress, caregiving stress, stress coping, schizophrenia, mood disorders, role expectations, social support, response bias
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