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Gender differences in caregiving among family - caregivers of people with mental illnesses
Open accessAbstract
All over the world women are the predominant providers of informal care for family members with chronic medical conditions or disabilities, including the elderly and adults with mental illnesses. It has been suggested that there are several societal and cultural demands on women to adopt the role of a family-caregiver. Stress-coping theories propose that women are more likely to be exposed to caregiving stressors, and are likely to perceive, report and cope with these stressors differently from men. Many studies, which have examined gender differences among family-caregivers of people with mental illnesses, have concluded that women spend more time in providing care and carry out personal-care tasks more often than men. These studies have also found that women experience greater mental and physical strain, greater caregiver-burden, and higher levels of psychological distress while providing care. However, almost an equal number of studies have not found any differences between men and women on these aspects. This has led to the view that though there may be certain differences between male and female caregivers, most of these are small in magnitude and of doubtful clinical significance. Accordingly, caregiver-gender is thought to explain only a minor proportion of the variance in negative caregiving outcomes. A similar inconsistency characterizes the explanations provided for gender differences in caregiving such as role expectations, differences in stress, coping and social support, and response biases in reporting distress. Apart from the equivocal and inconsistent evidence, there are other problems in the literature on gender differences in caregiving. Most of the evidence has been derived from studies on caregivers of elderly people who either suffer from dementia or other physical conditions. Similar research on other mental illnesses such as schizophrenia or mood disorders is relatively scarce. With changing demographics and social norms men are increasingly assuming roles as caregivers. However, the experience of men while providing care has not been explored adequately. The impact of gender on caregiving outcomes may be mediated by several other variables including patient-related factors, socio-demographic variables, and effects of kinship status, culture and ethnicity, but these have seldom been considered in the research on gender differences. Finally, it is apparent that methodological variations in samples, designs and assessments between studies contribute a great deal to the observed gender differences. This review highlights all these issues and concludes that there is much need for further research in this area if the true nature of gender differences in family-caregiving of mental illnesses is to be discerned.
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In the citing paper
“the burgeoning recent literature on informal caregiving has highlighted that this role is mostly assumed by females in a wide array of conditions including advanced cancer [28,29,30,31].”
From Failures in Reflective Functioning and Reported Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression in Bereaved Individuals: A Study on a Sample of Family Caregivers of Palliative Care Patients (2022) · cites this paper as [30]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Prior research suggests that female carers tend to spend more time in caregiving and often have to play multiple conflicting roles 57 resulting in greater psychological distress compared to male carers 11,58,59 .”
From Anxiety in Informal Dementia Carers: A Meta-Analysis of Prevalence (2020) · cites this paper as [57]
In the citing paper
“The current literature also highlights that there may be some other potential factors which may have an impact on psychological difficulties experienced by carers such as the time spent on caregiving, role conflicts (e.g., being mother, employee, and carer), and types of caregiving tasks involved (i.e., the level of impairment and independence) 57 .”
From Anxiety in Informal Dementia Carers: A Meta-Analysis of Prevalence (2020) · cites this paper as [57]
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Barrachina, J., Muriel, J., Margarit, C., Planelles, B., Ballester, P., Richart‐Martínez, M., Cutillas, E., Zandonai, T., Morales, D., & Peiró, A. M. (2021) · Archives of Internal Medicine Research · doi:10.26502/aimr.0061 · Cited by 15
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“for using a comprehensive system of evidence‐based interventions[4] and family has always been the mainstay of care in these patients.[5]”
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BackgroundCappon, D., den Boer, T., Yu, W., LaGanke, N., Fox, R., Brozgol, M., Hausdorff, J. M., Manor, B. D., & Pascual‐Leone, Á. (2023) · Neuromodulation Technology at the Neural Interface · doi:10.1016/j.neurom.2023.04.477 · Cited by 14
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“Burden is generally on the higher sides in case of female caregivers[19] (not always[20]) due to the fact that a lot of other household duties apart from caregiving are expected from females.”
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Do European co‐residential caregivers aged 50+ have an increased risk of frailty?
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“This is in line with the observation that women tend to be the predominant carers for family members having chronic medical conditions, those with disabilities, for the elderly and those with serious mental illnesses (Lerner et al., 2017; Sharma et al., 2016; Tang et al., 2013).”
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“However, Sharma and colleagues note that while many authors have suggested gender differences, metanalyses have found little or no differences (Sharma et al., 2016).”
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“Notably, the mechanisms of strain in the caregiver ‐ care recipient relationship may differ for individuals in the DRC. Social ostracization and stigmatization of care recipients is common and may provide an additional layer of complexity in addition to delayed treatment seeking to avoid social exclusion.”
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“Over half of caregivers, especially those supporting a relative with physical or cognitive impairments, experience high-to-moderate stress and exhaustion with greater ampli fi cation of these stressors among female caregivers (Sharma et al., 2016; Wajnberg et al., 2016).”
Sex/Gender Differences in Depression and Anxiety Disorders
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Moreno, G., Vicent, L., Rosillo, N., Delgado, J., del Cerro, E. P., & Bueno, H. (2024) · American Journal of Preventive Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.ajpc.2024.100713 · Cited by 11
“Marked differences in caregiving burden between females and males have been reported worldwide, with a much heavier burden falling systematically in females [16,17].”
BackgroundSadowska, K., Turnwald, M., O’Neil, T. A., Maust, D. T., & Gerlach, L. B. (2024) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/jgs.19320 · Cited by 10
Health Worker Burnout and Moral Injury: Drivers, Effects, and Remedies
Grumbach, K., & Willard‐Grace, R. (2025) · Annual Review of Public Health · doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-071823-122832 · Cited by 15
Jacobson, D., Parker, T., Cadel, L., Mansfield, E. D., & Kuluski, K. (2025) · Health Expectations · doi:10.1111/hex.70259 · Cited by 10
“It is possible that this unequal division of labour was rooted in some participants' perception of women as having a natural intuition for caregiving, also cited in the literature as women's ‘ natural ’ role as a caregiver [55].”
Spouse's functional disability and mortality: The Ohsaki Cohort 2006 Study
Sone, T., Nakaya, N., Tomata, Y., Nakaya, K., Hoshi, M., & Tsuji, I. (2019) · Geriatrics and gerontology international/Geriatrics & gerontology international · doi:10.1111/ggi.13709 · Cited by 10
Hijazi, H. H. A., Bani‐Issa, W., Abdi, R. M. A., Al‐Yateem, N., Marzouqi, A. M. A., Rahman, S. A., Alshammari, R., & Alameddine, M. S. (2022) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s381177 · Cited by 11
Bekhet, A. K. (2022) · Nursing Science Quarterly · doi:10.1177/08943184221131967 · Cited by 10
“Caregivers’ perceived burden is the extent to which a caregiver perceives level of burden as a result of caring for the care recipient (Sharma et al., 2016, p. 10).”
BackgroundKumar, S., Dixit, V., Ali, R., & Chaudhury, S. (2022) · Industrial Psychiatry Journal · doi:10.4103/ipj.ipj_44_22 · Cited by 10
“[15] The issue of gender differences in family-caregiving in psychiatric disorders like schizophrenia has not been examined as comprehensively as in the elderly with physical problems.”
Sex differences in vascular endothelial function related to acute and long COVID-19
Kitselman, K. A., Bédard-Matteau, J., Rousseau, S., Tabrizchi, R., & Daneshtalab, N. (2023) · Vascular Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.vph.2023.107250 · Cited by 10
The Experiences of African American Male Caregivers
Deskins, B. P., Letvak, S. A., Kennedy‐Malone, L., Rowsey, P. J., Bedini, L. A., & Rhew, D. C. (2022) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare10020252 · Cited by 10
“Given the current caregiving crisis, male caregiving is expected to increase [3,5].”
BackgroundWilliams, A., & Bank, J. (2022) · International Journal of Care and Caring · doi:10.1332/239788221x16498691269944 · Cited by 10
Pulling Together to Beat Superbugs
Bank, W. (2019) · The World Bank Open Knowledge Repository (World Bank) · doi:10.1596/37098 · Cited by 10
Lenzo, V., Sardella, A., Musetti, A., Petralia, M. C., Grado, I., & Quattropani, M. C. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191911930 · Cited by 10
Fee, A., McIlfatrick, S., & Ryan, A. A. (2021) · Ageing and Society · doi:10.1017/s0144686x21000854 · Cited by 12
“However, despite indications that men are becoming more visible as care-givers (Schwartz and McInnis-Dittrich, 2015), it has been suggested that they have a limited awareness of support services (Milligan and Morbey, 2013, 2016) and that their support needs are neglected (Sharma et al., 2016; Dickinson et al., 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialAgeing Masculinities, Alzheimer’s and Dementia Narratives
Hartung, H., Kunow, R., & Sweney, M. (2021) · Bloomsbury Publishing Plc eBooks · doi:10.5040/9781350230637 · Cited by 9
Noor, S., Isa, F. M., & Shafiq, A. (2022) · Business Perspectives and Research · doi:10.1177/22785337221087481 · Cited by 9
“Past literature reveals unique challenges women entrepreneurs face, like imbalances in household and work responsibilities, financial issues, less entrepreneurial knowledge, and lower risk-taking behavior (Sharma et al., 2016; Tiwari & Goel, 2020).”
Pai, M., Muhammad, T., Das, S., Chaudhary, M., & Srivastava, S. (2023) · Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1111/psyg.13014 · Cited by 9
Younas, A., Zeb, H., Durante, Á., & Vellone, E. (2024) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.116989 · Cited by 9
Barrera‐Caballero, S., Romero‐Moreno, R., Márquez‐González, M., Jiménez‐Gonzalo, L., Huertas‐Domingo, C., Olazarán, J., & Losada‐Baltar, A. (2024) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2024.100782 · Cited by 10
Determinants of trajectories of informal caregiving in later life: evidence from England
Gessa, G. D., & Deindl, C. (2024) · European Journal of Ageing · doi:10.1007/s10433-024-00818-w · Cited by 9
“…activity because of the gendered nature of different tasks, expectations of behaviours, responsibilities, and social structures and norms (Di Gessa et al. 2020; Haberkern et al. 2015; Sharma et al. 2016), we also found that women were generally more likely to belong to a caregiving trajectory.”
BackgroundMagakwe, T. S. S., John, E. E., Daniel-Nwosu, E., Ogiemudia, O. M., Ike, O. O., Ogbonna, G. O., dos Santos, I. I. D. B., Westbrook, N., Amaechi, O. U., Uzuegbu, U. E., et al. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-05831-2 · Cited by 19
Daily associations between sleep and stressors in nurses with and without children
Harris, T. P., Vigoureux, T. F. D., & Lee, S. (2021) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.13505 · Cited by 9
“Given that many nurses provide primary care to their children (Sharma et al., 2016), nurses who are parents are our particular interest.”
BackgroundBhowmik, P., Padhi, M., & Pattnaik, S. (2022) · Benchmarking An International Journal · doi:10.1108/bij-03-2021-0134 · Cited by 10
Herrera, M. S., & Fernández, M. B. (2022) · Journal of Women & Aging · doi:10.1080/08952841.2022.2044709 · Cited by 9
“The older parents in this study tended to receive support mostly from their daughters, similar to other studies (Cheix et al., 2015; Fern andez & Herrera, 2020; Johnson & Lo Sasso, 2006; Sharma et al., 2016).”
ResultOjifinni, O. O., & Uchendu, O. C. (2022) · Pan African Medical Journal · doi:10.11604/pamj.2022.42.64.32715 · Cited by 12
“Conversely, some studies reported that women are more exposed to higher caregiving burden which predisposes them to poorer mental and physical health [52,53,58].”
BackgroundMethodThe ripple effect: Cancer‐related financial toxicity for family members and caregivers
Dee, E. C., Robredo, J. P. G., Eala, M. A. B., Suanes, P. N., & Bhoo‐Pathy, N. (2022) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.6067 · Cited by 11
Carroll, D., Wales, M., Rintell, L. S., Hojlo, M. A., Gonzalez–Heydrich, J., Berbert, L., Fitzpatrick, M., D’Angelo, E. J., & Reed, M. P. (2022) · Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association · doi:10.1177/10783903221141883 · Cited by 9
“The sample was also predominantly female, although this is a general trend reported in the caregiver burden literature (Sharma et al., 2016).”
BackgroundHeterogeneity in the mental health cost of caring for others
Portier, C. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115922 · Cited by 9
Dang, T. H., Thodis, A., Ulapane, N. N. B., Antoniades, J., Gurgone, M., Nguyen, T. A., Gilbert, A. S., Wickramasinghe, N. S., Varghese, M., Loganathan, S., et al. (2023) · Clinical Gerontologist · doi:10.1080/07317115.2023.2254296 · Cited by 10
“Asserting one’s needs may not be easy within some cultural contexts, especially where assertive-ness conflicts with gender roles and gendered expectations about whose duty it is to provide care for older people (Sharma et al., 2016).”
Spousal role and caregiver burden in HIV affected families in Anhui Province, China
Hsieh, J., Li, L., Lin, C., Luo, S., & Ji, G. (2017) · AIDS Care · doi:10.1080/09540121.2017.1300631 · Cited by 9
Actions developed by the Brazilian Physiological Society to promote women’s participation in science
Mello‐Carpes, P. B., Abreu, A. R. D. P., Stanisçuaski, F., Souza, M. A., Campagnole‐Santos, M. J., & Irigoyen, M. C. (2019) · AJP Advances in Physiology Education · doi:10.1152/advan.00216.2018 · Cited by 9
“It is important to consider that, even women who do not have children can suffer from the burden of care for others; this is because the care of relatives, like elderly parents, often ends up as the responsibility of women (55).”
BackgroundSarabia‐Cobo, C., Taltavull-Aparicio, J. M., Miguélez‐Chamorro, A., Fernández‐Rodríguez, Á., Ortego, C., & Fernández‐Peña, R. (2020) · Applied Nursing Research · doi:10.1016/j.apnr.2020.151344 · Cited by 9
Elmståhl, S., Auoja, N. L., Ekström, H., & Wranker, L. S. (2020) · Scandinavian Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1177/1403494820960648 · Cited by 11
“[25] Sharma N, Chakrabarti S and Grover S.”
BackgroundNugraha, S., Tondokoro, T., Susilowati, I. H., Hasiholan, B. P., Alimoeso, S., Rahardjo, T. B. W., Takagi, K., & Wada, K. (2022) · Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.3889/oamjms.2022.8892 · Cited by 10
“However, several studies have shown that women have better knowledge about dementia [10], [20], [23].”
BackgroundReshaping wellbeing in changing care and paid work environments
Williams, A. (2022) · Wellbeing Space and Society · doi:10.1016/j.wss.2022.100103 · Cited by 9
Sex-Differences in Pain and Opioid Use Disorder Management: A Cross-Sectional Real-World Study
Escorial, M., Muriel, J., Margarit, C., Agulló, L., Morales, D., & Peiró, A. M. (2022) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines10092302 · Cited by 9
“This could introduce a bias mediated by several other variables, such as socio-demographics, that could be more relevant than pain status [43,44].”
BackgroundBarton, H. J., Pflaster, E. G., Loganathar, P., Werner, A., Tarfa, A., Wilkins, D., Ehlenbach, M. L., Katz, B., Coller, R. J., Valdez, R. S., et al. (2022) · Applied Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2022.103900 · Cited by 9
Giusti, L., Mammarella, S., Vecchio, S. D., Salza, A., CASACCHIA, M., & Roncone, R. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13110892 · Cited by 13
“…distress was higher in households caring for a psychiatric patient, and the increasingly onerous burden for mental health caregivers compared to those with family members affected by physical disabilities confirmed the findings of both Fusar-Poli et al. [47,50] and previous literature data [84].”
ResultExperiences of Family Caregivers of Patients with Borderline Personality Disorder of Social Stigma
Meshkinyazd, A., Bordbar, M. R. F., & Heydari, A. (2021) · Iranian Journal of Nursing and Midwifery Research · doi:10.4103/ijnmr.ijnmr_267_19 · Cited by 9
“Today, after the failure of the de-institutionalization movement, family has always taken the major role in responsibilities of patient care.[5] Families are the most important social support for these patients in society.”
BackgroundGraven, L. J., Abbott, L. S., Boel-Studt, S. M., Grant, J. S., & Buck, H. G. (2022) · Journal of Palliative Care · doi:10.1177/08258597221079244 · Cited by 8
“In contrast, men use more effective coping strategies (eg, social support, problem-solving, acceptance, detachment) than women.(63) Prior research also indicates that men who have fewer social networks (eg, social support and family) are more likely to ask for and receive outside support from formal and informal sourc…”
BackgroundMacDonald, A., & McLaughlin, K. (2022) · Journal of Youth Studies · doi:10.1080/13676261.2022.2101357 · Cited by 8
Metadata
- Authors
- Sharma, N., Chakrabarti, S., & Grover, S.
- Affiliations
- Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (IN)
- Corresponding author
- Chakrabarti, Subho
- Venue
- World Journal of Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Baishideng Publishing Group Inc.
- Published
- 2016
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 7
- ISSN
- 2220-3206 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4804270
- OpenAlex
- W2311849209
- Cited by
- 865
- References
- 123
- Citations by year
- 2026: 119 · 2025: 138 · 2024: 121 · 2023: 100 · 2022: 104 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 73 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 3
- FWCI
- 43.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by-nc
- Locations
- World Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Family Caregiving in Mental Illness
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Research and Theory › Nursing care and research
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Intergenerational Family Dynamics and Caregiving
- Keywords
- gender differences, family caregivers, mental illness, informal care, caregiver burden, psychological distress, caregiving stress, stress coping, schizophrenia, mood disorders, role expectations, social support, response bias
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