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Gender differences in caregiving among family - caregivers of people with mental illnesses
Open accessAbstract
All over the world women are the predominant providers of informal care for family members with chronic medical conditions or disabilities, including the elderly and adults with mental illnesses. It has been suggested that there are several societal and cultural demands on women to adopt the role of a family-caregiver. Stress-coping theories propose that women are more likely to be exposed to caregiving stressors, and are likely to perceive, report and cope with these stressors differently from men. Many studies, which have examined gender differences among family-caregivers of people with mental illnesses, have concluded that women spend more time in providing care and carry out personal-care tasks more often than men. These studies have also found that women experience greater mental and physical strain, greater caregiver-burden, and higher levels of psychological distress while providing care. However, almost an equal number of studies have not found any differences between men and women on these aspects. This has led to the view that though there may be certain differences between male and female caregivers, most of these are small in magnitude and of doubtful clinical significance. Accordingly, caregiver-gender is thought to explain only a minor proportion of the variance in negative caregiving outcomes. A similar inconsistency characterizes the explanations provided for gender differences in caregiving such as role expectations, differences in stress, coping and social support, and response biases in reporting distress. Apart from the equivocal and inconsistent evidence, there are other problems in the literature on gender differences in caregiving. Most of the evidence has been derived from studies on caregivers of elderly people who either suffer from dementia or other physical conditions. Similar research on other mental illnesses such as schizophrenia or mood disorders is relatively scarce. With changing demographics and social norms men are increasingly assuming roles as caregivers. However, the experience of men while providing care has not been explored adequately. The impact of gender on caregiving outcomes may be mediated by several other variables including patient-related factors, socio-demographic variables, and effects of kinship status, culture and ethnicity, but these have seldom been considered in the research on gender differences. Finally, it is apparent that methodological variations in samples, designs and assessments between studies contribute a great deal to the observed gender differences. This review highlights all these issues and concludes that there is much need for further research in this area if the true nature of gender differences in family-caregiving of mental illnesses is to be discerned.
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In the citing paper
“the burgeoning recent literature on informal caregiving has highlighted that this role is mostly assumed by females in a wide array of conditions including advanced cancer [28,29,30,31].”
From Failures in Reflective Functioning and Reported Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression in Bereaved Individuals: A Study on a Sample of Family Caregivers of Palliative Care Patients (2022) · cites this paper as [30]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Prior research suggests that female carers tend to spend more time in caregiving and often have to play multiple conflicting roles 57 resulting in greater psychological distress compared to male carers 11,58,59 .”
From Anxiety in Informal Dementia Carers: A Meta-Analysis of Prevalence (2020) · cites this paper as [57]
In the citing paper
“The current literature also highlights that there may be some other potential factors which may have an impact on psychological difficulties experienced by carers such as the time spent on caregiving, role conflicts (e.g., being mother, employee, and carer), and types of caregiving tasks involved (i.e., the level of impairment and independence) 57 .”
From Anxiety in Informal Dementia Carers: A Meta-Analysis of Prevalence (2020) · cites this paper as [57]
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Trotta, F., Meucci, B., Gravante, F., Simeone, S., Alvaro, R., Vellone, E., & Pucciarelli, G. (2026) · Nursing in Critical Care · doi:10.1111/nicc.70345
Leszko, M. (2025) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s1530-353520250000033007
Dardouri, M., Ayouni, I., Guesmi, N., Alshammari, B. M., Motakef, H. I., Lamine, H., Nageeb, S. M., Alrashidi, N. A., Baananou, S., Fredj, S. B., et al. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-37771-w
Fakharian, E., Sehat, M., Jahangirimehr, A., Fazel, M. R., Mahdian, M., Kalanfarmanfarma, K., AkbarzadehArab, A., Abedzadeh‐Kalahroudi, M., Vaeidi, M., Yarmohammadi, S., et al. (2026) · The Scientific World JOURNAL · doi:10.1155/tswj/3033303
Buchholz, M., Engel, L., Xie, F., & Michalowsky, B. (2026) · Health and Quality of Life Outcomes · doi:10.1186/s12955-026-02478-z
“The participating caregivers were typically female and older adults (mean age ~ 70 years), which reflects the broader demographic profile of informal caregivers in dementia care [26, 27].”
Sharma, C., Bhandarı, S. S., Mayya, S. S., & Devi, E. S. (2026) · British Journal of Community Nursing · doi:10.12968/bjcn.2025.0079
Who would you save? Children and mothers' life-or-death decisions
Cao, Q., Yang, F., Ma, H., & Jean Decety, A. (2026) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2026.106468
Kamran, H., Shamsaee, A., Mofidi, F., Manouchehri, M., Haghighat, N., Foroutan, H., & Alam, A. (2026) · Journal of Pediatric Urology · doi:10.1016/j.jpurol.2026.105793
Dimou, A., Beltsiou, M., Christodoulakis, A., Beis, I., Heretis, I., Tzoulakis, S., Tzortzakakis, D. S., & Tsiligianni, I. (2026) · Supportive Care in Cancer · doi:10.1007/s00520-026-10402-w
“Women's caregiving responsibilities are often shaped by cultural expectations and domestic roles, which increase their likelihood of assuming and sustaining caregiving duties [23, 24].”
Selecting Safety-Enhancing Tools For Persons Living With Dementia: A Framework For Caregivers
Sava, R. N., Pasciak, W., Golden, J., Kimball, J. E., Bayne, K., Clouqueur, M., & Vahia, I. V. (2026) · The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry Open Science Education and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.osep.2026.01.004
Dally, F., Prüßner, F., Bludau, F., Gravius, S., Darwich, A., & Betsch, M. (2026) · Journal of Bone and Joint Infection · doi:10.5194/jbji-11-105-2026
Mevawalla, A., Chatzipanagiotou, O. P., Sarfraz, A., & Pawlik, T. M. (2026) · Journal of Cancer Survivorship · doi:10.1007/s11764-026-01981-y
Oe, N., Iwata, Y., Tanaka, Y., Yokoyama, A., & Tadaka, E. (2026) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci15020129
“These gender differences are shaped, in part, by culturally embedded norms and expectations surrounding caregiving responsibilities and individuals’ capacity for choice (Sharma et al. 2016).”
Mohan, N., Prabakaran, A., Sooria, C. B., Thavody, J., Sujina, C. M., Chandran, P., Kumar, S., Tharayil, H. M., & Deshpande, S. N. (2026) · Indian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.4103/indianjpsychiatry_567_24
“[23] Lack of choice is a factor that affects caregiver burden.”
Assessing the antecedents behind after-hours work in teleworkers: a scoping review
Balakrishnar, K., Long, B.-Z. S., Lo, J., Fiorini, L. A., Gohar, B., & Nowrouzi‐Kia, B. (2026) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdag015 · Cited by 1
“69 Fur ther more, workplace cultures, par ticularly in male-dominated fielded, may implicitly require women to demonstrate g reater commitment and competence due to them being under valued in the work-place.”
Li, Y., Zhang, X., Yu, L., Liu, S., Wang, S., Yu, T., Hu, Z., & Jiang, Y. (2026) · Palliative Medicine · doi:10.1177/02692163261422557
“This gender-related ineq - uity can be attributed to the fact that females are more prone to frailty 35 and tend to be emotionally reliant on family, 36 resulting in both a general characteristic of poorer physical health and residence with family members.”
Campbell, R., Candelaria, D., Fullerton, D. J., Mercieca‐Bebber, R., Tait, M.-A., Norman, R., Kleitman, S., & King, M. P. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-41428-z
“Females tend to take on more household responsibilities than males and comprise up to 81% of informal family caregivers 24 .”
Ji, B., Zhang, B., chen, S., Chen, Y., Wei, W., Zhao, L., Li, J., Ni, Z., & Jiang, X. (2026) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-026-01065-w
“Beyond ASD, research in the general population suggests that mothers and fathers differ systematically in social participation, access to social resources, and responses to caregiving responsibilities [32, 33], which may shape opportunities for social engagement.”
The future of caregiving is shared: advancing a global agenda that calls men into care
Bolis, M., Barker, G., Rawlings, L. B., Grau-Grau, M., & Sahni, U. (2025) · Gender & Development · doi:10.1080/13552074.2025.2560104
“Research on caregiving prior to the Beijing Conference on Women focused overwhel-mingly on women (Sharma, Chakrabarti, and Grover 2016).”
Saber, S. M., Hashemiparast, M., Shalchi, B., Bagherzadeh, B., Rahimian, B., & Allahverdipour, H. (2026) · Educational Gerontology · doi:10.1080/03601277.2026.2647776
Lin, X., Huang, M., Guo, T., Lin, R., Huang, C., Yan, Y., & Li, H. (2026) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/72012 · Cited by 2
Mamta, & Prakash, O. (2026) · Indian Journal of Language and Linguistics · doi:10.54392/ijll2611
“Analysis: Women are often seen as care givers (Sharma et al., 2016) and if any woman does not meet with those expectations, she is seen as a bad person in society.”
Ananthi, M., & Prabakar, S. (2026) · Frontiers in Pediatrics · doi:10.3389/fped.2026.1793788
“Focusing specifically on maternal caregiving, therefore, provides a critical lens through which to examine how intersecting structural inequalities shape children’s developmental outcomes in marginalized urban communities (28).”
Okigbo, C. S., Freeman, S., Hemingway, D. E., Holler, J. S., & Schmidt, G. (2026) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci15040229
Gao, X., To, S. M., & Zhao, Y. (2026) · Qualitative Health Research · doi:10.1177/10497323261424741
Taha, M., & de Gracia, M. R. L. (2026) · Gender Issues · doi:10.1007/s12147-026-09411-0 · Cited by 1
“Conversely, societal expectations of women are rooted in the historical context where they typically engaged in caregiving and domestic duties (Sharma et al., 2016 ), leading girls to adopt ‘expressive qualities’ such as empathy and sensitivity from a young age (Parsons, 2010).”
Sex differences in cardiovascular outcomes and coping strategies among young carers and non-carers
Grangel, A. B., McMahon, J., & Gallagher, S. (2026) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2026.109265
Reverse innovation in diabetic foot disease prevention: Rethinking family and community roles
Suglo, J. N., Winkley, K., Abeasi, D. A., & Sturt, J. A. (2026) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1111/dme.70336
Aljuhani, M., Dakhilallah, H., Almutairi, R. R., Almutairi, A. S., Alshehri, W. M., Eid, T., & Alodhialah, A. M. (2026) · Current Oncology · doi:10.3390/curroncol33040234
“Women frequently serve as primary caregivers for ill family members, potentially increasing their familiarity with supportive care services [16,17].”
Well-being Gains and Losses from Unorganized Caregiving for Older Adults in GhanaPreprint
Offei, D., Enemark, U., Osei, R., & Ackah, C. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-8810063/v1
Sex differences in age-related patterns of cannabis use disorder symptoms and mental health
Poelker-Wells, S., Fearon-Drake, D., & Filbey, F. M. (2026) · The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse · doi:10.1080/00952990.2026.2650344
“For example, research indicates that females are more likely to accumulate greater caregiving responsibilities across adulthood, even when overall caregiving time is comparable to males (52–54).”
Gopichandran, V., Muralidharan, N., Chandrasekaran, J., Sinthiya, D. D., Subramaniam, S., Thiagesan, R., & Ranjith, J. (2026) · medRxiv · doi:10.64898/2026.04.29.26352106
The Importance of Sex-Specific Risks
Hayden, S. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-21818-6_3
Yanıkkaya, B., & Demirel, G. Y. (2026) · Health & Social Care in the Community · doi:10.1155/hsc/7239016
Adopting a Comprehensive Approach to Empower Midlife Women for Healthy Aging: A Narrative Review
Shrivastava, S. R., Bobhate, P. S., & Ughade, S. N. (2026) · Journal of the Scientific Society · doi:10.4103/jss.jss_160_25
Metadata
- Authors
- Sharma, N., Chakrabarti, S., & Grover, S.
- Affiliations
- Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (IN)
- Corresponding author
- Chakrabarti, Subho
- Venue
- World Journal of Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Baishideng Publishing Group Inc.
- Published
- 2016
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 7
- ISSN
- 2220-3206 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4804270
- OpenAlex
- W2311849209
- Cited by
- 865
- References
- 123
- Citations by year
- 2026: 119 · 2025: 138 · 2024: 121 · 2023: 100 · 2022: 104 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 73 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 3
- FWCI
- 43.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by-nc
- Locations
- World Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Family Caregiving in Mental Illness
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Research and Theory › Nursing care and research
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Intergenerational Family Dynamics and Caregiving
- Keywords
- gender differences, family caregivers, mental illness, informal care, caregiver burden, psychological distress, caregiving stress, stress coping, schizophrenia, mood disorders, role expectations, social support, response bias
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