CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 0Global Financial Regulation and CrisesGlobal Financial Crisis and PoliciesEconomic, financial, and policy analysis

The Interactions Between Political Economy and Global Financial Crises: A Case Study of the 2008 Global Recession

Open access
Hochmair, Hartwig Henry, Wang, Xiaofeng, Hamid, Mohamad Bin Abdul·2026·International Academic Journal of Economics
DOI 10.71086/iaje/v13i1/iaje1305
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

The 2008 Global Financial Crisis was one of the biggest shocks in the history of modern economics, and it revealed the lack of strength of the global economic structure. Besides the financial catalysts of the crisis, it is increasingly being viewed through the prism of political economy, where the regulatory regimes, institutional frameworks, and the state-market interactions played a central role in the development and exacerbation of the systemic instability. This paper examines the connection between political economy and the world financial crisis using the example of the 2008 recession. This paper is founded on a political economy qualitative case study approach. It incorporates the secondary data, which is policy reports, institutional publications and the available empirical studies to assess the role of the regulatory frameworks, policy of financial liberalisation and mechanisms of global governance in the dynamics of the crisis. The comparative institutional analysis is also used in the study to comprehend cross-country transmission effects. The results suggest that financial market deregulation, along with disjointed regulatory frameworks in key economies, were key contributors to excessive risk-taking and bubble formation of assets. The downfall of major financial institutions like Lehman Brothers caused a very quick contagion effect, which proved the interdependence of the global financial system. Moreover, central banks and international responses in the form of policy measures in order to stabilise markets revealed imbalances in international financial regulation and uneven recovery patterns of economies. The paper concludes that the crisis in 2008 cannot be explained in the absence of the structural political economy that influenced the behaviour of the financial sector and policy reactions. It explains why more powerful international regulatory coordination is necessary, institutional responsibility, and transformed financial governance frameworks to reduce future systemic risks. The example of the 2008 recession, therefore, gives important insights into the ongoing tension between market liberalisation and financial stability in the world economy.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This qualitative political-economy case study argues the 2008 Global Financial Crisis was driven not only by financial miscalculation but by deregulation, market liberalisation, institutional fragmentation, and global financial interconnectedness. It finds global governance responses were only partially effective and that developed economies experienced deeper banking and liquidity shocks than emerging economies, which mainly faced capital-flow reversals and trade contractions.

Key findings

  • Political economy factors—especially deregulation and market liberalisation in developed economies—enabled excessive risk-taking, rapid credit growth, lax housing lending, and complex products such as mortgage-backed securities that masked credit risk and created systemic vulnerabilities.
  • Financial deregulation increased systemic risk through greater leverage, speculative mortgage lending, unregulated shadow banking, removal of cross-border barriers, and securitisation that reduced transparency; correlated exposures produced contagion when housing prices fell.
  • Global financial governance was only partially effective: the Federal Reserve, ECB, and Bank of England stabilised markets through liquidity provision and monetary easing, but responses were reactive; the IMF provided emergency aid but lacked power to impose global regulation, and disjointed control and unequal decision authority weakened crisis management.
  • Comparative impact differed: developed economies saw banking collapse, liquidity crises, severe deleveraging, high currency volatility, deep trade contraction, and slow prolonged recovery, while emerging economies such as India, China, and Brazil had limited banking distress, sudden capital outflows followed by stabilisation, depreciation pressure but partial resilience, export slowdown, and relatively faster recovery.

Methods

  • Qualitative explanatory case study using a political economy lens, focused on the 2008 Global Financial Crisis; scope covers the global financial system from 2008 to 2010, with pre-crisis accumulation discussed from 2000–2010, and particular attention to the United States, the United Kingdom/Eurozone, and emerging economies including India, China, and Brazil.
  • Purposive institutional sample rather than a person or statistical sample: IMF, World Bank, Federal Reserve, European Central Bank, Bank of England, Lehman Brothers, Goldman Sachs, Moody’s, Standard and Poor’s, Fitch, and regulatory bodies such as the SEC and national regulators.
  • Data are qualitative secondary sources—policy texts, central bank reports, international financial institution reports, official crisis investigation reports, scholarly peer-reviewed publications, institutional white papers, and financial reports—analysed through thematic and process-based interpretation and comparative cross-country analysis.

Limitations

  • The paper does not have a dedicated limitations section; it states that future research should extend the study with quantitative techniques such as financial network modelling and multi-crisis comparisons, implying the current work is qualitative and single-case.
  • Evident from the text: the study relies on interpretive secondary data rather than numerical data, uses a purposive institutional sample rather than a statistical or population sample, and does not quantitatively measure contagion or systemic risk.
  • Evident from the text: the scope is limited to the 2008–2010 crisis period and selected developed and emerging economies/institutions, so findings may not generalise to other crises or all economies.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.71086/iaje/v13i1/iaje1305

Cites

0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

6 of 16 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Financial liberalisation policies adopted in developed economies contributed to high exposure to cross-border contagion.

    “The empirical evidence shows that the financial liberalisation policies adopted in the developed economies contributed to a high degree of exposure of the economies to cross-border impacts of contagion (Alnabulsi et al., 2022).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Alnabulsi et al., 2022 source

      The empirical results for the whole sample (Section 4.1; page unavailable) discuss the global financial crisis and non-performing loans in MENA banks, not cross-border contagion. Searches for financial liberalisation in developed economies and for cross-border contagion or spillovers found no passage establishing the claimed link. (LLM, conf=0.72)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Monetary policy actions in developed economies to stabilise domestic markets can create spillover effects of heightened financial turmoil in developing regions.

    “The recent empirical investigation also shows that the monetary policy actions in the developed economies in stabilising the domestic markets are likely to create the spillover effect of heightened financial turmoil in the developing regions (Hou et al., 2025;Ahmad et al., 2023).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hou et al., 2025

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Ahmad et al., 2023 source

      The Introduction (page unavailable) says prolonged loose monetary policy in advanced countries contributed to the global financial crisis. It does not say those policies were intended to stabilise domestic markets or show that they caused heightened financial turmoil in developing regions; the paper’s empirical focus is UK firm performance. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingnone given

    Central banks (Federal Reserve, ECB, Bank of England) stabilised markets by providing liquidity and monetary easing during the 2008 crisis.

    “Federal Reserve, ECB and Bank of England central banks stabilised the markets by providing liquidity and by monetary easing.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The policy reports, institutional publications, and empirical studies used as secondary data provide an adequate evidentiary basis for the paper's causal claims about the 2008 crisis.
  • Findingreasoning

    Financial market deregulation and disjointed regulatory frameworks in key economies were key contributors to excessive risk-taking and asset bubble formation in the 2008 crisis.

    “The results suggest that financial market deregulation, along with disjointed regulatory frameworks in key economies, were key contributors to excessive risk-taking and bubble formation of assets.”
    • Also stated in: § Objective-Based Analysis RQ1: Political Economy and Crisis Emergence · boosted
      “The political economy factors that contributed greatly to the crisis in 2008 were political economy deregulation and market liberalisation in the developed economies.”
    • Also stated in: § RQ2: Deregulation and Systemic Risk · plain
      “Deregulation of the financial sector contributed greatly to systemic risk through the greater use of leverage, the increase of speculative mortgage lending and shadow banking systems that were not subject to regulation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The policy reports, institutional publications, and empirical studies used as secondary data provide an adequate evidentiary basis for the paper's causal claims about the 2008 crisis.
  • Findingreasoning

    Emerging economies experienced indirect effects like capital outflow, currency depreciation, and trade contraction.

    “Other indirect effects were witnessed in emerging economies, like the outflow of capital, currency depreciation, and contraction of trade.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The policy reports, institutional publications, and empirical studies used as secondary data provide an adequate evidentiary basis for the paper's causal claims about the 2008 crisis.
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 11
  • May combine two claims. 21

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Post-2008 reforms have enhanced banking resilience, but systemic vulnerabilities remain due to expansion of shadow banking and digital financial intermediation.

    “Recent studies have argued that the post-2008 reforms have enhanced banking resilience, but that there are still systemic vulnerabilities due to the expansion of shadow banking and beyond digital financial intermediation (Sun, 2025).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sun, 2025 source

      The Introduction and section 2.1 say post-2008 reforms made the financial system more resilient. The Conclusion says digital innovations create new risks and calls for research on fintech and big tech. Our copy does not link remaining systemic vulnerabilities to an expansion of shadow banking; the only exact match for “shadow banking” is in the References. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Macroprudential frameworks after the crisis were partially effective in reducing bank-level risk but insufficient in reducing cross-border contagion.

    “Further research indicates that the introduction of the macroprudential frameworks after the crisis has been partially effective in reducing the risk at the bank level and is insufficient in terms of reducing the cross-border contagion processes (Khalif, 2024).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Khalif, 2024 source

      The Conclusion (section 5.1; page unavailable) says macroprudential policies can mitigate systemic risk, broadly supporting the risk-reduction part. It does not establish that post-crisis frameworks were only partially effective at the bank level. The Recommendations (section 5.2; page unavailable) identify cross-border spillovers as a challenge, but do not find the frameworks insufficient to reduce contagion; the Empirical Review (section 2.2; page unavailable) reports that some measures effectively mitigate cross-border banking risks. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Institutional asymmetries between developed and emerging economies increased the asymmetric effect of the crisis, exposing weaknesses in global financial governance.

    “Besides, institutional asymmetries between the developed and emerging economies increased the asymmetric effect of the crisis, exposing weaknesses in the global financial governance (Gunay & Can, 2022).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gunay & Can, 2022 source

      The Conclusion (section 5; page unavailable) finds greater financial-contagion and spillover transmission among developed economies, supporting a difference in crisis effects. It does not establish that institutional asymmetries caused that difference or that the findings exposed weaknesses in global financial governance. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Institutional trust and quality of governance significantly contribute to the effectiveness of crisis management systems across countries.

    “Further studies show that institutional trust and quality of governance significantly contribute to the determination of the effectiveness of crisis management systems in various countries (Sutton & Arku, 2022).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sutton & Arku, 2022 source

      The available passages under “Regional Economic Resilience: Developing Conceptual Clarity” and “Towards a System Approach” show section headings, not findings about crisis management across countries. Searches for institutional trust, quality of governance, and crisis management returned no passage addressing the claimed relationship. (LLM, conf=0.68)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Securitisation diversified risk among investors worldwide, leading to decreased transparency.

    “Securitisation also diversified risk among the investors around the world, leading to a decrease in transparency.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The policy reports, institutional publications, and empirical studies used as secondary data provide an adequate evidentiary basis for the paper's causal claims about the 2008 crisis.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The comparative evidence shows imbalanced effects of the crisis, with developed economies facing severe banking instability and emerging economies only a few effects through external avenues of capital flow reversals and trade contractions.

    “The comparative evidence also brings out the imbalanced effects of the crisis, with the developed economies facing severe banking instability, and the emerging economies only a few effects through the external avenues of reversals in capital flows and trade contractions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The policy reports, institutional publications, and empirical studies used as secondary data provide an adequate evidentiary basis for the paper's causal claims about the 2008 crisis.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The IMF offered emergency aid but lacked power to impose global regulation.

    “Organisations such as the IMF offered the emergency aid but lacked the power to impose global regulation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The policy reports, institutional publications, and empirical studies used as secondary data provide an adequate evidentiary basis for the paper's causal claims about the 2008 crisis.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Central bank responses were reactive and not preventive.

    “These were, however, reactive and not preventive.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The policy reports, institutional publications, and empirical studies used as secondary data provide an adequate evidentiary basis for the paper's causal claims about the 2008 crisis.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Emerging economies were not as exposed to toxic assets and could recover more quickly than developed economies.

    “But they were not as exposed to toxic assets and hence could recover more quickly.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The policy reports, institutional publications, and empirical studies used as secondary data provide an adequate evidentiary basis for the paper's causal claims about the 2008 crisis.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Fewer regulations led to high risk-taking, quick credit growth, and lax lending criteria in the housing sector in developed economies before the 2008 crisis.

    “Fewer regulations led to a high level of risk-taking, quick credit growth and lax lending criteria in the housing sector.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The policy reports, institutional publications, and empirical studies used as secondary data provide an adequate evidentiary basis for the paper's causal claims about the 2008 crisis.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The crisis revealed imbalanced rule of global financial systems and failures in strength of economies.

    “The crisis also brought out the imbalanced rule of the global financial systems and failures in the strength of the economies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The policy reports, institutional publications, and empirical studies used as secondary data provide an adequate evidentiary basis for the paper's causal claims about the 2008 crisis.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Deregulation, institutional fragmentation, and global financial interconnectedness increased systemic risk in the 2008 crisis.

    “Deregulation, institutional fragmentation and global financial interconnectedness are some of the attributes that increased systemic risk.”
    • Also stated in: § Conclusion and Future Work · plain
      “The deregulation of finances, ideological changes towards market liberalisation, as well as inadequate supervisory systems, all facilitated excess leverage, risky lending behaviour and the growth of opaque financial structures.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The policy reports, institutional publications, and empirical studies used as secondary data provide an adequate evidentiary basis for the paper's causal claims about the 2008 crisis.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Greater capital mobility leads to greater velocity of crisis impact, particularly among emerging economies with fewer institutional cushions.

    “Similarly, studies on financial globalisation indicate that the greater the capital mobility, the greater the velocity at which it is felt in the crisis period, particularly among the emerging economies which have fewer institutional cushions (Scheubel et al., 2025).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Scheubel et al., 2025

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Post-crisis regulatory reforms, although making the system more resilient, have not entirely mitigated underlying systemic risks in shadow banking and international capital markets.

    “It has also been revealed post-crisis that regulatory reforms, although making the system more resilient, have not entirely helped to mitigate underlying systemic risks in shadow banking and international capital markets (Chaturvedi & Singh, 2023).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Chaturvedi & Singh, 2023

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The selected institutions have direct input on financial regulation, market operations, and mechanisms of crisis response.

    “These institutions are selected because they have a direct input on financial regulation, market operations, and mechanisms of crisis response.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Closely correlated exposures increased contagion effect when housing prices fell, causing market stress and worldwide financial meltdown.

    “These closely correlated exposures increased a contagion effect when housing prices fell, causing market stress and a worldwide financial meltdown.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The policy reports, institutional publications, and empirical studies used as secondary data provide an adequate evidentiary basis for the paper's causal claims about the 2008 crisis.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There is unequal distribution of financial stability in the world, highly influenced by policy choices of major economies.

    “This aids the argument that there is unequal distribution of financial stability in the world and that it is highly influenced by the choice of policy by the major economies (Castelblanco et al., 2022).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Castelblanco et al., 2022 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The study sample is purposive and institutionally relevant.

    “The study sample is purposive, and it is institutionally relevant.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Despite post-crisis reforms strengthening some aspects of financial stability, structural vulnerability persists due to fragmented regulation, inadequate policy coordination, and enhanced financial interconnectedness.

    “The above-reviewed literature indicates that there has been a general agreement that, despite the existence of post-crisis reforms that have strengthened certain aspects of financial stability, structural vulnerability still persists due to fragmented regulation, inadequate coordination of policies and enhanced financial interconnectedness.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Interrelated banking systems reveal systemic risk and localised shocks are more likely to become global crises.

    “Furthermore, financial network studies show that interrelated banking systems reveal systemic risk and, therefore, localised shocks are more likely to turn into a global crisis (Torri & Giacometti, 2023).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Torri & Giacometti, 2023

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    International financial regulation remains rudimentary and there is no coordination between domestic regulating bodies and international bodies.

    “It implies that the international financial regulation remains at its rudimentary level, and there is no coordination between domestic regulating bodies and international bodies (Manogna et al., 2025).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Manogna et al., 2025

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Political ideology impacts regulatory reforms; switches to market-focused governance reduced regulatory oversight intensity, increasing financial vulnerability.

    “Besides this, the new literature also talks about the impact of political ideology on regulatory reforms, which indicates that switches to market-focused governance in the past have led to a reduction in the intensity of regulatory oversight, thereby increasing financial vulnerability (Wood & Stockhammer, 2024).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wood & Stockhammer, 2024

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These conditions led to systemic vulnerabilities ingrained in the global financial system and eventually resulted in the 2008 crisis.

    “These conditions, over time, led to systemic vulnerabilities that were ingrained in the global financial system and eventually resulted in the crisis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The policy reports, institutional publications, and empirical studies used as secondary data provide an adequate evidentiary basis for the paper's causal claims about the 2008 crisis.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Principal determinants of global financial stability are institutional design, regulatory ideology, and cross-border financial integration.

    “Overall, this study upholds the premise that the principal determinants of global financial stability are the institutional design, regulatory ideology and cross-border financial integration.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The policy reports, institutional publications, and empirical studies used as secondary data provide an adequate evidentiary basis for the paper's causal claims about the 2008 crisis.
24 of 24

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The policy reports, institutional publications, and empirical studies used as secondary data provide an adequate evidentiary basis for the paper's causal claims about the 2008 crisis.

    “The study is based on qualitative secondary sources.”
    “Data is collected through a systematic search of policy texts, central bank reports, international financial institutions report, official reports of a crisis investigation and scholarly peer-reviewed publications.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Stronger international regulatory coordination and transformed financial governance frameworks would reduce future systemic risks.

    “It explains why more powerful international regulatory coordination is necessary, institutional responsibility, and transformed financial governance frameworks to reduce future systemic risks.”
    “The macroprudential coordination and regulatory harmonisation at the global level are yet to be enhanced in improving resilience to future financial shocks.”
2 of 2

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Study period differs between methodology and results

    Major

    The Study Area limits the research to 2008-2010, but the Results and Discussion says it discusses 2000-2010, including the pre-crisis accumulation phase.

1 of 1

Cites

The publisher hasn’t deposited this paper’s reference list.

Related

Authors
Hochmair, H. H., Wang, X., & Hamid, M. B. A.
Affiliations
University of Florida (US)
ORCID
Hochmair, Hartwig Henry
Venue
International Academic Journal of Economics
Publisher
International Academic Institute for Science and Technology
Published
2026-06-30
Pages
31
ISSN
2454-2474 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.71086/iaje/v13i1/iaje1305
OpenAlex
W7163554370
Semantic Scholar
5752ed9d6e16a2f0166cea6884b3ca6cef007d77
Cited by
0
References
0
FWCI
0.00
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
International Academic Journal of Economics (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Finance › Global Financial Regulation and Crises
  • Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Finance › Global Financial Crisis and Policies
  • Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › General Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economic, financial, and policy analysis
Keywords
2008 financial crisis, political economy, financial regulation, financial liberalization, financial deregulation, financial contagion, global financial governance, international regulatory coordination, financial stability, state-market relations, asset price bubbles, risk-taking, Lehman Brothers, central bank policy, systemic risk

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-28.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-28.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review