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Adolescent Onset of the Gender Difference in Lifetime Rates of Major Depression: A Theoretical Model
Abstract
Prepubescent boys are, if anything, more likely than girls to be depressed. During adolescence, however, a dramatic shift occurs: between the ages of 11 and 13 years, this trend in depression rates is reversed. By 15 years of age, females are approximately twice as likely as males to have experienced an episode of depression, and this gender gap persists for the next 35 to 40 years. We offer a theoretical framework that addresses the timing of this phenomenon. First, we discuss the social and hormonal mechanisms that stimulate affiliative needs for females at puberty. Next, we describe how heightened affiliative need can interact with adolescent transition difficulties to create a depressogenic diathesis as at-risk females reach puberty. This gender-linked vulnerability explains why adolescent females are more likely than males to become depressed when faced with negative life events and, particularly, life events with interpersonal consequences.
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“There now is consensus that the gender difference in depression has a multifactorial etiology”
From Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms (2017) · cites this paper as Cyranowski et al., 2000
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“Additionally, the vulnerability–stress model by Cyranowski, Frank, Young, and Shear ( 2000 ) posits that adolescent girls are at a particular risk for experiencing negative interpersonal events because of their tendencies towards interpersonal affiliation.”
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Alcohol Abuse and Depression in Children and Adolescents
Wu, P., Hoven, C. W., Okezie, N., Fuller, C. J., & Cohen, P. R. (2008) · Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse · doi:10.1300/j029v17n02_04 · Cited by 27
Banica, I., Schell, S., Racine, S. E., & Weinberg, A. (2022) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2022.108363 · Cited by 38
Cui, W., Aida, T., Ito, H., Kobayashi, K., Wada, Y., Kato, S., Nakano, T., Zhu, M., Isa, K., Kobayashi, K., et al. (2020) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0444-20.2020 · Cited by 64
“Taking into consideration the fact that the prevalence of MDD is higher in women than in men (Cyranowski et al., 2000), examining female mouse under the TST would provide deeper insight into the similarities and differences of the role of dopaminergic transmission in stress coping between sexes.”
BackgroundDeep learning identifies morphological determinants of sex differences in the pre-adolescent brain
Adeli, E., Zhao, Q., Zahr, N. M., Goldstone, A., Adolf Pfefferbaum, A., Sullivan, E. V., & Pohl, K. M. (2020) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117293 · Cited by 30
Pillemer, S., Ayers, E., & Holtzer, R. (2018) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2018.1495178 · Cited by 33
Depression in Diabetic Retinopathy: A Review and Recommendation for Psychiatric Management
Chen, X. N., & Lü, L. (2016) · Psychosomatics · doi:10.1016/j.psym.2016.04.003 · Cited by 35
Attentional bias training in girls at risk for depression
LeMoult, J., Joormann, J., Kircanski, K., & Gotlib, I. H. (2016) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12587 · Cited by 36
“We focused on girls in this study because women are twice as likely as men to be depressed (e.g., Kessler et al., 1994), and this gender difference emerges during adolescence (Cyranowski, Frank, Young, & Shear, 2000).”
BackgroundAgoston, A. M., & Rudolph, K. D. (2015) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/0272431615593176 · Cited by 36
Nelemans, S. A., Hale, W. W., Branje, S., van Lier, P. A. C., Jansen, L. M. C., Platje, E., Frijns, T., Koot, H. M., & Meeus, W. (2013) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-013-9820-2 · Cited by 30
“2000b) and mean levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms during adolescence (Cyranowski et al. 2000; McLean and Anderson 2009), we also examined the results of this study including sex as a covariate.”
ResultHa, T., Overbeek, G. J., Cillessen, A. H. N., & Engels, R. C. M. E. (2012) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.04.009 · Cited by 37
Shyness Predicts Depressive Symptoms Among Adolescents
Murberg, T. A. (2009) · School Psychology International · doi:10.1177/0143034309107065 · Cited by 33
“Mid-to-late adolescence represents a critical time for heightened vulnerability to depression, especially in girls (Cyranowski et al., 2000; Hankin et al., 1998).”
BackgroundLi, H., Kawatake-Kuno, A., Inaba, H., Miyake, Y., Itoh, Y., Ueki, T., Oishi, N., Murai, T., Suzuki, T., & Uchida, S. (2024) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2023.12.004 · Cited by 36
Health and Well-Being Needs Among Head and Neck Cancer Caregivers – A Systematic Review
Benyo, S. E., Phan, C., & Goyal, N. (2022) · Annals of Otology Rhinology & Laryngology · doi:10.1177/00034894221088180 · Cited by 36
Grover, R., Dua, P., Juneja, S., Chauhan, L., Agarwal, P., & Khurana, A. (2020) · Ophthalmic Epidemiology · doi:10.1080/09286586.2020.1846757 · Cited by 32
Nielsen, J. D., Mennies, R. J., & Olino, T. M. (2020) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101922 · Cited by 42
Ooi, K. E. B., Low, L.-S. A., Lech, M., & Allen, N. B. (2012) · IEEE International Conference on Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/icassp.2012.6288946 · Cited by 29
Guo, G., & Tillman, K. H. (2008) · Psychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1097/ypg.0b013e32831219b6 · Cited by 31
“Much research has shown that females tend to report a higher level of depressive symptoms than males from early adolescence throughout adulthood (Baron and Campbell, 1993; Mirowsky and Ross, 1995; Cyranowski et al., 2000).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Cyranowski, J. M., Frank, E., Young, E., & Shear, M. K.
- Affiliations
- University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (US)
- Venue
- Archives of General Psychiatry
- Publisher
- American Medical Association (AMA)
- Published
- 2000-01-01
- Volume
- 57
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 21
- ISSN
- 0003-990X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2025113055
- Cited by
- 1,276
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 32 · 2025: 44 · 2024: 57 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 69 · 2021: 72 · 2020: 77 · 2019: 49 · 2018: 43 · 2017: 83 · 2016: 44 · 2015: 72 · 2014: 51 · 2013: 53 · 2012: 53
- FWCI
- 30.35
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Archives of General Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH-18269, T32MH018269)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Keywords
- adolescent depression, gender differences, major depressive disorder, puberty, endocrine effects, adolescent transition, diathesis
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Depressive Disorder, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Life Change Events, Models, Psychological, Puberty, Risk Factors, Sex Factors, Socialization, Age of Onset, Sex Distribution
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