Cited by 1,276Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesMaternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum

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Adolescent Onset of the Gender Difference in Lifetime Rates of Major Depression: A Theoretical Model

Cyranowski, Jill M., Frank, Ellen, Young, Elizabeth, Shear, M. Katherine·2000·Archives of General Psychiatry

DOI 10.1001/archpsyc.57.1.21

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Abstract

Prepubescent boys are, if anything, more likely than girls to be depressed. During adolescence, however, a dramatic shift occurs: between the ages of 11 and 13 years, this trend in depression rates is reversed. By 15 years of age, females are approximately twice as likely as males to have experienced an episode of depression, and this gender gap persists for the next 35 to 40 years. We offer a theoretical framework that addresses the timing of this phenomenon. First, we discuss the social and hormonal mechanisms that stimulate affiliative needs for females at puberty. Next, we describe how heightened affiliative need can interact with adolescent transition difficulties to create a depressogenic diathesis as at-risk females reach puberty. This gender-linked vulnerability explains why adolescent females are more likely than males to become depressed when faced with negative life events and, particularly, life events with interpersonal consequences.

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“First, the gender difference found by Joyner and Udry (2000) and others is relevant to the reversal in gender differences in mental health (girls’ advantage replaced by boys’ advantage) in adolescence that persists into adulthood (Cyranowski et al. 2000; Nolen-Hoeksema 1990).”
Background
Why Not Everyone Gets Their Fair Share of Stress: Adolescent'S Perceived Relationship Affection Mediates Associations between Temperament and Subsequent Stressful Social Events
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Result
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“-PA Author M anuscript N IH -PA Author M anuscript precursors that are developmentally salient to preadolescent functioning in girls have been put forth (e.g., Cyranowski et al. 2000; Hankin and Abramson 2001; Keenan and Hipwell 2005; Nolen-Hoeksema 1994; Rose and Rudolph 2006).”
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Influential
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“Overall, the highlighted limitations do not allow the results obtained to be generalized to the entire population of young Italian adults, so we suggest that prospective research consider increasing the representativeness of the sample in the future.”
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“Given the theoretical differences in male and female risk factors for depression [26,84], potential interaction effects between gender and the variables retained in the final model were tested.”
BackgroundInfluential
Gender differences in major depressive disorders: A resting state fMRI study
Tu, Z., Wu, F., Jiang, X., Kong, L., & Tang, Y. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1025531 · Cited by 24
Gender Differences in Mental Health Disorder and Substance Abuse of Chinese International College Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Li, M., Su, H., Liao, Z., Qiu, Y., Chen, Y., Zhu, J., Pei, Y., Jin, P., Xu, J., & Qi, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.710878 · Cited by 31
Elevated risk of depression among adolescents presenting with sleep disorders
Inkelis, S. M., Ancoli‐Israel, S., Thomas, J. D., & Bhattacharjee, R. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine · doi:10.5664/jcsm.8996 · Cited by 33
Effectiveness of a school-based life skills program on emotional regulation and depression among elementary school students: A randomized study
Lee, M.-J., Wu, W., Chang, H.-C., Chen, H.-J., Lin, W.-S., Feng, J. Y., & Lee, T. S. (2020) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105464 · Cited by 34
Self-esteem as a mediator in the longitudinal relationship between dysfunctional parenting and peer attachment in early adolescence
Lim, Y.-M. (2020) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105224 · Cited by 23
Shame and interpersonal sensitivity: Gender differences and the association between internalized shame coping strategies and interpersonal sensitivity.
Nyström, M. B. T., Kjellberg, E., Heimdahl, U., & Jonsson, B. (2018) · Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic · doi:10.1521/bumc.2018.82.2.137 · Cited by 23
Prediction of major depression in adolescents using an optimized multi-channel weighted speech classification system
Ooi, K. E. B., Lech, M., & Allen, N. B. (2014) · Biomedical Signal Processing and Control · doi:10.1016/j.bspc.2014.08.006 · Cited by 25
Brokers at risk: Gender differences in the effects of structural position on social stress and life satisfaction.
Carboni, I., & Gilman, R. (2012) · Group Dynamics Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/a0028753 · Cited by 23
Social experience induces sex-specific fos expression in the amygdala of the juvenile rat
Weathington, J. M., Strahan, J. A., & Cooke, B. M. (2012) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.06.004 · Cited by 20
“Teenage girls and women are 70% more likely than males to develop these complex psychiatric conditions, a sex difference that first appears during puberty (Cyranowski et al., 2000;Marcus et al., 2005;Weissman and Klerman, 1977).”
Background
Childhood Predictors of Use and Costs of Antidepressant Medication by Age 24 Years: Findings from the Finnish Nationwide 1981 Birth Cohort Study
Gyllenberg, D., Sourander, A., Niemelä, S., Helenius, H. Y. M., Sillanmäki, L. H., Ristkari, T., Piha, J., Kumpulainen, K., Tamminen, T., Moilanen, I. K., et al. (2011) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2010.12.016 · Cited by 23
Social support and positive future expectations, hope, and achievement among Latinx students: Implications by gender and special education
Fraser, A. M., Bryce, C. I., Cahill, K. M., & Jenkins, D. L. (2022) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075221110626 · Cited by 24
“Also, girls generally have stronger relational orientation than boys, attuning more to the emotional needs of others and being more strongly affected by them (Cyranowski et al., 2000; Rudolph, 2002).”
Background
Parent‐Adolescent Emotion Dynamics at Multiple Time Scales
Lougheed, J. P., & Keskin, G. (2021) · doi:10.1111/cdep.12409 · Cited by 22
Developing and Validating Short Forms of the Parent General Behavior Inventory Mania and Depression Scales for Rating Youth Mood Symptoms
Youngstrom, E. A., Meter, A. V., Frazier, T. W., Youngstrom, J. K., & Findling, R. L. (2018) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2018.1491006 · Cited by 32
Prospective relations between intrusive parenting and child behavior problems: Differential moderation by parasympathetic nervous system regulation and child sex.
Rudd, K. L., Alkon, A., & Yates, T. M. (2017) · Physiology and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.08.014 · Cited by 22
“In contrast to prior findings with externalizing problems, the patterns that emerged in the current sample of younger boys is consistent with prior suggestions that boys may be more sensitive to intrusive parenting effects [77], and that internalizing problems, particularly depressive symptoms, may be especially salie…”
Result
Cognitive Reappraisal and Depression in Children with a Parent History of Depression
Kudinova, A. Y., James, K. M., & Gibb, B. E. (2017) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-017-0333-2 · Cited by 22
“Fourth, given that rates of depression rapidly increase in adolescence (Cyranowski et al. 2000; Lewinsohn et al. 1994), future research using adolescent samples is needed to examine whether our findings generalize to this population.”
From Menarche to Menopause
Mendle, J., Eisenlohr-Moul, T. A., & Kiesner, J. (2016) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702616650424 · Cited by 19
Emotion recognition specialization and context‐dependent risk of anxiety and depression in adolescents
Oldehinkel, A. J., Hartman, C. A., van Oort, F. V. A., & Nederhof, E. (2015) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.299 · Cited by 23
Pubertal maturation and affective symptoms in adolescence and adulthood: Evidence from a prospective birth cohort
Gaysina, D., Richards, M., Kuh, D. J., & Hardy, R. (2015) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579414001448 · Cited by 21
Externalizing and Internalizing Behaviors Among Adolescents with Learning Disabilities: Contribution of Adolescents’ Attachment to Mothers and Negative Affect
Al-Yagon, M. (2014) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-014-9942-3 · Cited by 22
“In explaining such sex differences among adolescents, Cyranowski et al. (2000) suggested the possible role of various factors such as changes in circulating gonadal hormones during puberty and gender socialization processes.”
Depression, quality of life and primary care: A cross-sectional study
Andriopoulos, P., Lotti-Lykousa, M., Pappa, E., Papadopoulos, A. A., & Niakas, D. A. (2013) · Journal of Epidemiology and Global Health · doi:10.1016/j.jegh.2013.06.004 · Cited by 20
“Analysis of demographic data indicated statistically signiﬁcant differences ( p 005) between men and women, a ﬁnding concordant with the literature [19–22].”
Longitudinal evaluation of the psychosocial well-being of recent orphans compared with non-orphans in a school-attending cohort in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
DeSilva, M. B., Skalicky, A. M., Beard, J., Cakwe, M., Zhuwau, T., & Simon, J. L. (2012) · International Journal of Mental Health Promotion · doi:10.1080/14623730.2012.733600 · Cited by 22
Positive Youth Development and Depression: An Examination of Gender Differences in Croatia and Spain
Gómez‐Baya, D., Čikeš, A. B., Hirnstein, M., Kurtović, A., Vrdoljak, G., & Wiium, N. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.689354 · Cited by 26
“, 2017), greater interpersonal dependence (Cyranowski et al., 2000) as well as conformity to female gender role (Broderick and Korteland, 2002).”
Background
Peer Victimization, Coping Strategies, Depression, and Suicidal Ideation Among Young Adolescents.
Cohen, O. B. S., Shahar, G., & Klomek, A. B. (2020) · Crisis · doi:10.1027/0227-5910/a000614 · Cited by 21
Cumulative socioeconomic status risk and observations of parent depression: Are there associations with child outcomes?
Sullivan, A. D. W., Benoit, R., Breslend, N. L., Vreeland, A., Compas, B. E., & Forehand, R. (2019) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/fam0000567 · Cited by 23
Daily Stressful Experiences Precede But Do Not Succeed Depressive Symptoms: Results from a Longitudinal Experience Sampling Study
Brose, A., Wichers, M., & Kuppens, P. (2017) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2017.36.3.196 · Cited by 21
Concurrent and Predictive Associations between Early Adolescent Perceptions of Peer Affiliates and Mood States Collected in Real Time via Ecological Momentary Assessment Methodology
Rusby, J. C., Westling, E., Crowley, R., & Light, J. M. (2012) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0030393 · Cited by 21
Prevalence, determinants and care-seeking behaviour for anxiety and depression in Nepalese population: a secondary analysis of data from Nepal Demographic and Health Survey 2022
Pandey, A., Adhikari, B., Bista, B., Lamichhane, B., Joshi, D., C, S. P. K., Sharma, S., & Baral, S. (2024) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2023-078582 · Cited by 20
A Randomized Clinical Trial Comparing Two Treatment Strategies, Evaluating the Meaningfulness of HAM-D Rating Scale in Patients With Major Depressive Disorder
Asghar, J., Tabasam, M., Althobaiti, M. M., Ashour, A. A., Aleid, M. A., Khalaf, O. I., & Aldhyani, T. H. H. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.873693 · Cited by 22
Social Support and Depression Among Pulmonary Tuberculosis Patients in Anhui, China
Fang, X.-H., Wu, Q., Tao, S.-S., Xu, Z., Zou, Y.-F., Ma, D.-C., Pan, H.-F., & Hu, W. (2022) · Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare · doi:10.2147/jmdh.s356160 · Cited by 25
Neural Responses to Social Reward Predict Depressive Symptoms in Adolescent Girls During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Sequeira, S. L., Silk, J. S., Hutchinson, E., Jones, N. P., & Ladouceur, C. D. (2021) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsab037 · Cited by 23
“Shy, fearful, and behaviorally inhibited (BI) temperaments in childhood have been linked to higher rates of depression in later adolescence (Gladstone & Parker, 2006), particularly for girls (Cyranowski et al., 2000).”
Background
Longitudinal Coupling of Depression in Parent–Adolescent Dyads: Within- and Between-Dyads Effects Over Time
Griffith, J. M., Young, J. F., & Hankin, B. L. (2021) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702621998313 · Cited by 22
“Girls may be especially vulnerable to the depressogenic effects of fluctuations in their parents’ depression given that girls have been found to demonstrate enhanced interpersonal sensitivity relative to boys (Cyranowski et al., 2000; Hankin et al., 2007; Rudolph, 2002).”
Background
Heterogeneity in the co‐occurrence of depression and anxiety symptoms among youth survivors: A longitudinal study using latent profile analysis
Wang, Y., Ge, F., Zhang, J., & Zhang, W. (2021) · Early Intervention in Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/eip.13101 · Cited by 21
“Before mid-puberty, boys were more likely to suffer depression symptoms, while between 15 and 19 years, the prevalence of depression doubled in girls (Bijl et al., 2002; Cyranowski et al., 2000; Folkman et al., 1987).”
Background
Observed Personality in Preschool: Associations with Current and Longitudinal Symptoms
Gilbert, K., Whalen, D. J., Tillman, R., Barch, D. M., Luby, J. L., & Jackson, J. J. (2019) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-019-00567-w · Cited by 18
Links between attachment to parents and internalizing problems in adolescence: The mediating role of adolescents’ personality
Keresteš, G., Rezo, I., & Ajduković, M. (2019) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-019-00210-3 · Cited by 22
Novel polygenic risk score as a translational tool linking depression-related changes in the corticolimbic transcriptome with neural face processing and anhedonic symptoms
Marečková, K., Hawco, C. S., Santos, F. C. D., Bakht, A., Calarco, N., Miles, A. E., Voineskos, A. N., Sibille, E. L., Hariri, A. R., & Nikolova, Y. S. (2020) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-020-01093-w · Cited by 16

Authors: Cyranowski, J. M., Frank, E., Young, E., & Shear, M. K.
Affiliations: University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (US)
ORCID: Cyranowski, Jill M.
Frank, Ellen
Young, Elizabeth
Shear, M. Katherine
Venue: Archives of General Psychiatry
Publisher: American Medical Association (AMA)
Published: 2000-01-01
Volume: 57
Issue: 1
Pages: 21
ISSN: 0003-990X (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1001/archpsyc.57.1.21
OpenAlex: W2025113055
Cited by: 1,276
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 32 · 2025: 44 · 2024: 57 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 69 · 2021: 72 · 2020: 77 · 2019: 49 · 2018: 43 · 2017: 83 · 2016: 44 · 2015: 72 · 2014: 51 · 2013: 53 · 2012: 53
FWCI: 30.35
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Archives of General Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (MH-18269, T32MH018269)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
Keywords: adolescent depression, gender differences, major depressive disorder, puberty, endocrine effects, adolescent transition, diathesis
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Depressive Disorder, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Life Change Events, Models, Psychological, Puberty, Risk Factors, Sex Factors, Socialization, Age of Onset, Sex Distribution

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Adolescent Onset of the Gender Difference in Lifetime Rates of Major Depression: A Theoretical Model

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