Cited by 1,276Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesMaternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum

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Adolescent Onset of the Gender Difference in Lifetime Rates of Major Depression: A Theoretical Model

Cyranowski, Jill M., Frank, Ellen, Young, Elizabeth, Shear, M. Katherine·2000·Archives of General Psychiatry

DOI 10.1001/archpsyc.57.1.21

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Abstract

Prepubescent boys are, if anything, more likely than girls to be depressed. During adolescence, however, a dramatic shift occurs: between the ages of 11 and 13 years, this trend in depression rates is reversed. By 15 years of age, females are approximately twice as likely as males to have experienced an episode of depression, and this gender gap persists for the next 35 to 40 years. We offer a theoretical framework that addresses the timing of this phenomenon. First, we discuss the social and hormonal mechanisms that stimulate affiliative needs for females at puberty. Next, we describe how heightened affiliative need can interact with adolescent transition difficulties to create a depressogenic diathesis as at-risk females reach puberty. This gender-linked vulnerability explains why adolescent females are more likely than males to become depressed when faced with negative life events and, particularly, life events with interpersonal consequences.

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“…b Social, Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Unit, Department of Basic Psychological Research and Research Methods, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria cCognitive Neuroscience Sector, International School for Advanced Studies, SISSA-ISAS, Trieste, Italy…”
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“While the mechanisms of higher depression prevalence in females remain unclear, the interplay of gender socialization, social and hormonal mechanisms, and stressful events associated with adolescence may play a role [24].”
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“For instance, in utero exposure to maternal stress is associated with more negative outcomes for males, whereas adversity during childhood is associated with greater expression of affective disorders for females, especially after the onset of puberty (Cyranowski, Frank, Young, & Shear, 2000).”
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Psychosocial Precursors and Correlates of Differing Internalizing Trajectories from 3 to 15 Years1
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“Such experiences imply that females are at greater risk for depression than men via increased exposure to interpersonal stressors, heightened reactivity to interpersonal stress, or both ( Cyranowski et al. 2000; Gotlib and Hammen 1992; Leadbeater et al. 1995; Nolen-Hoeksema and Girgus 1994).”
Background
Epidemiology of depression in an urban population of Turkish children and adolescents
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“…with previous research (Kashani et al., 1983), the former conflicts with earlier research reporting higher rates of depression in adolescent girls (Angold and Worthman, 1993; Cyranowski et al., 2000, Fleitlich-Bilyk and Goodman, 2004; Kessler, 2003; Rohde et al., 2009; Sørensen et al., 2005).”
Result
Precursors and Correlates of Anxiety Trajectories From Late Childhood to Late Adolescence
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“On the basis of extant theory and some research (e.g., Cyranowski et al., 2000; Davies & Windle, 1997), it was hypothesized that parent–child relationship difficulties and problematic peer relationships would more strongly differentiate the high- and low-anxiety groups for adolescent girls than…”
MethodResult
School Environment and Adolescent Depressive Symptoms: A Multilevel Longitudinal Study
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Effects of stressful life events, maternal depression and 5‐HTTLPR genotype on emotional symptoms in pre‐adolescent children
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“As adolescence ensues, the number of reported adverse life events is likely to increase [Cyranowski et al., 2000] and this may also help to explain the possible emergence of different patterns of gene adversity interactions according to sex.”
Background
Gender differences in trajectories of depressive symptoms across childhood and adolescence: A multi-group growth mixture model
Lewis, A. J., Sae-Koew, J. H., Toumbourou, J. W., & Rowland, B. (2019) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2019.09.027 · Cited by 98
Overcoming the unitary exploration of binge-watching: A cluster analytical approach
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A regressional analysis of maladaptive rumination, illness perception and negative emotional outcomes in Asian patients suffering from depressive disorder
Lu, Y., Tang, C. S., Liow, C. S., Ng, W. W. N., Ho, C. S. H., & Ho, R. (2014) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2014.06.014 · Cited by 89

Authors: Cyranowski, J. M., Frank, E., Young, E., & Shear, M. K.
Affiliations: University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (US)
ORCID: Cyranowski, Jill M.
Frank, Ellen
Young, Elizabeth
Shear, M. Katherine
Venue: Archives of General Psychiatry
Publisher: American Medical Association (AMA)
Published: 2000-01-01
Volume: 57
Issue: 1
Pages: 21
ISSN: 0003-990X (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1001/archpsyc.57.1.21
OpenAlex: W2025113055
Cited by: 1,276
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 32 · 2025: 44 · 2024: 57 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 69 · 2021: 72 · 2020: 77 · 2019: 49 · 2018: 43 · 2017: 83 · 2016: 44 · 2015: 72 · 2014: 51 · 2013: 53 · 2012: 53
FWCI: 30.35
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Archives of General Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (MH-18269, T32MH018269)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
Keywords: adolescent depression, gender differences, major depressive disorder, puberty, endocrine effects, adolescent transition, diathesis
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Depressive Disorder, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Life Change Events, Models, Psychological, Puberty, Risk Factors, Sex Factors, Socialization, Age of Onset, Sex Distribution

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Adolescent Onset of the Gender Difference in Lifetime Rates of Major Depression: A Theoretical Model

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