Maternal Smoking During Pregnancy and Offspring Conduct Problems: Evidence From 3 Independent Genetically Sensitive Research Designs
Open accessAbstract
IMPORTANCE: Several studies report an association between maternal smoking during pregnancy and offspring conduct disorder. However, past research evidences difficulty in disaggregating prenatal environmental influences from genetic and postnatal environmental influences. OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship between maternal smoking during pregnancy and offspring conduct problems among children reared by genetically related mothers and genetically unrelated mothers. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: The following 3 studies using distinct but complementary research designs were used: The Christchurch Health and Development Study (a longitudinal cohort study that includes biological and adopted children), the Early Growth and Development Study (a longitudinal adoption-at-birth study), and the Cardiff IVF (In Vitro Fertilization) Study (an adoption-at-conception study among genetically related families and genetically unrelated families). Maternal smoking during pregnancy was measured as the mean number of cigarettes per day (0, 1-9, or 10) smoked during pregnancy. Possible covariates were controlled for in the analyses, including child sex, birth weight, race/ethnicity, placement age, and breastfeeding, as well as maternal education and maternal age at birth and family breakdown, parenting practices, and family socioeconomic status. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURE: Offspring conduct problems (age range, 4-10 years) reported by parents or teachers using the behavior rating scales by Rutter and Conners, the Child Behavior Checklist and the Children's Behavior Questionnaire Short Form, and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. RESULTS: A significant association between maternal smoking during pregnancy and offspring conduct problems was observed among children reared by genetically related mothers and genetically unrelated mothers. Results from a meta-analysis affirmed this pattern of findings across pooled study samples. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Findings across 3 studies using a complement of genetically sensitive research designs suggest that smoking during pregnancy is a prenatal risk factor for offspring conduct problems when controlling for specific perinatal and postnatal confounding factors.
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Recent high-quality prospective studies using multimethod exposure measurement and propensity score modeling have delineated a coherent pattern of disruptive behavior associated with prenatal tobacco exposure beginning in early childhood.
“More recently, high quality, prospective studies using multimethod exposure measurement and propensity score modeling have delineated a coherent pattern of disruptive behavior associated with prenatal tobacco exposure, beginning in early childhood.”
From Developmental toxicity of nicotine: A transdisciplinary synthesis and implications for emerging tobacco products (2017) · cites this paper as [151]
Adoption studies support an independent effect of maternal smoking during pregnancy on externalizing behaviors.
“adoption studies provide support for an independent effect of maternal smoking during pregnancy on externalizing behaviors.”
From Developmental toxicity of nicotine: A transdisciplinary synthesis and implications for emerging tobacco products (2017) · cites this paper as [151]
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- Authors
- Gaysina, D., Fergusson, D. M., Leve, L. D., Horwood, J., Reiss, D., Shaw, D. S., Elam, K. K., Natsuaki, M. N., Neiderhiser, J. M., & Harold, G. T.
- Affiliations
- University of Leicester (GB)
- University of Otago (NZ)
- Oregon Social Learning Center (US)
- Yale University (US)
- University of Pittsburgh (US)
- University of California, Riverside (US)
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Harold, Gordon T.
- ORCID
- Venue
- JAMA Psychiatry
- Publisher
- American Medical Association (AMA)
- Published
- 2013-09-01
- Volume
- 70
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 956
- ISSN
- 2168-622X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3828999
- OpenAlex
- W2143389594
- Cited by
- 152
- References
- 9
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 23 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 19.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- JAMA Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH092118)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01DA020585)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R56HD042608, R01HD042608)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Prenatal Substance Exposure Effects
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- smoking during pregnancy, prenatal tobacco exposure, conduct disorder, adoption studies, prenatal risk factors, child behavior problems
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Child, Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Mothers, Pregnancy, Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects, Risk Factors, Smoking, Cohort Studies, Prevalence, Conduct Disorder
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