Causal Inference in Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) Research
Open accessAbstract
Studies of the developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD) often rely on prospective observational data, from which associations between developmental exposures and outcomes in later life can be identified. Typically, conventional statistical methods are used in an attempt to mitigate problems inherent in observational data, such as confounding and reverse causality, but these have serious limitations. In this review, we discuss a variety of methods that are increasingly being used in observational epidemiological studies to help strengthen causal inference. These methods include negative controls, cross-contextual designs, instrumental variables (including Mendelian randomization), family-based studies, and natural experiments. Applications within the DOHaD framework, and in relation to behavioral, psychiatric, and psychological domains, are considered, and the considerable potential for expanding the use of these methods is outlined.
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Breastfeeding, which is socially patterned in the UK but not in Brazil, was found to be associated with obesity only in the UK sample, whereas the association with IQ was observed in both the UK and Brazilian samples, indicating that the association with obesity is likely to be due to residual confounding, whilst that for IQ is more likely to be causal.
“For example, breastfeeding, which is socially patterned in the UK but not in Brazil, was found to be associated with obesity only in the UK sample, whereas the association with IQ was observed in both the UK and Brazilian samples, indicating that the association with obesity is likely to be due to residual confounding, whilst that for IQ is more likely to be causal (64).”
From Association Between Cannabis and Psychosis: Epidemiologic Evidence (2016) · cites this paper as [64]
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- Authors
- Gage, S. H., Munafò, M. R., & Davey Smith, G.
- Affiliations
- University of Bristol (GB)
- 1MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit (IEU) at the University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 2BN, United Kingdom; email: kz.davey-smith@bristol.ac.uk
- ORCID
- Gage, Suzanne H.
- Venue
- Annual Review of Psychology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2016-01-04
- Volume
- 67
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 567-585
- ISSN
- 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-2085
- OpenAlex
- W1926125597
- Cited by
- 173
- References
- 85
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 27 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 1.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Bristol Research (University of Bristol) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Cancer Research UK
- British Heart Foundation
- Medical Research Council (MR/K023195/1)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Advanced Causal Inference Techniques
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Birth, Development, and Health
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
- Keywords
- developmental origins of health and disease, causal inference, observational studies, confounding, reverse causality, negative control, instrumental variables, Mendelian randomization, family studies, natural experiment, early life exposure, behavioral effects, mental health outcomes, psychological outcomes
- MeSH terms
- Health Status, Humans, Prospective Studies, Research Design, Epidemiologic Research Design, Causality, Observational Studies as Topic
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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