Strategies To Design Selective Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors
Abstract
This review classifies drug‐design strategies successfully implemented in the development of histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors, which have many applications including cancer treatment. Our focus is on especially demanded selective HDAC inhibitors and their structure‐activity relationships in relation to corresponding protein structures. The main part of the paper is divided into six subsections each narrating how optimization of one of six structural features can influence inhibitor selectivity. It starts with the impact of the zinc binding group on selectivity, continues with the optimization of the linker placed in the substrate binding tunnel as well as the adjustment of the cap group interacting with the surface of the protein, and ends with the addition of groups targeting class‐specific sub‐pockets: the side‐pocket‐, lower‐pocket‐ and foot‐pocket‐targeting groups. The review is rounded off with a conclusion and an outlook on the future of HDAC inhibitor design.
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HDAC8 is unique within the HDAC family; while structurally most similar to other class I HDAC catalytic domains, it operates in a monomeric fashion.
“HDAC8 is unique within the HDAC family, and while it is structurally the most similar to other class I HDAC catalytic domains it operates in a monomeric fashion [7].”
From Medicinal chemistry advances in targeting class I histone deacetylases (2023) · cites this paper as [7]
HDACi selectivity is traditionally gained from optimizing the cap group due to conservation of residues around the interior of the catalytic tunnel and increased variation around the surface residues of each HDAC.
“HDACi selectivity is traditionally gained from optimizing the cap group due to the conservation of residues around the interior of the catalytic tunnel with increased variation around the surface residues of each HDAC [7].”
From Medicinal chemistry advances in targeting class I histone deacetylases (2023) · cites this paper as [7]
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Structural Characterization of the SMRT Corepressor Interacting with Histone Deacetylase 7
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Isophthalic Acid‐Based HDAC Inhibitors as Potent Inhibitors of HDAC8 from Schistosoma mansoni
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Crystal Structure of a Histone Deacetylase Homologue from Pseudomonas aeruginosa
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Structural isomers of cinnamic hydroxamic acids block HCV replication via different mechanisms
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HDAC Inhibitors: Dissecting Mechanisms of Action to Counter Tumor Heterogeneity
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“large cap groups and benzyl linkers instead of aliphatic chains [30].”
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“In a recent study, Baselious and colleagues demonstrated the utility of an optimized AlphaFold model for virtual screening, specifically addressing HDAC subtype selectivity [277].”
Challenges in natural product-based drug discovery assisted with in silico -based methods
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Self-citationPROTACs: A novel strategy for cancer drug discovery and development
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Targeting Histone Deacetylases: Opportunities for Cancer Treatment and Chemoprevention
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“[208] proposed that the catalytic pocket of HDACs can be composed of two main entities: the main pocket that comprises the acetate binding cavity, the substrate-binding tunnel, and the rim of the pocket; and the sub-pockets, such as the side pocket (SP), a lower pocket (LP), and the foot pocket (FP) (review in [209]).”
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Current trends in development of HDAC-based chemotherapeutics
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Self-citationNon-Hydroxamate Zinc-Binding Groups as Warheads for Histone Deacetylases
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“[42], which are recommended for further reading.”
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The Zinc-Binding Group Effect: Lessons from Non-Hydroxamic Acid Vorinostat Analogs
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Self-citationA Therapeutic Perspective of HDAC8 in Different Diseases: An Overview of Selective Inhibitors
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“Thus, the drug design of selective inhibitors is mainly based on the proper modifications of the three pharmacophoric elements which should allow the compounds to discriminate among the isozymes [131].”
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Anticancer benzimidazole derivatives as inhibitors of epigenetic targets: a review article
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Targeting Histone Deacetylases 6 in Dual-Target Therapy of Cancer
Beljkaš, M., Ilić, A., Čebzan, A., Radović, B., Djoković, N., Ružić, D., Nikolic, K. M., & Oljačić, S. (2023) · Pharmaceutics · doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics15112581 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Hydroxamic acid hybrids: Histone deacetylase inhibitors with anticancer therapeutic potency
Pan, Y. J., Hou, H., Zhou, B., Gao, J., & Gao, F. (2023) · European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115879 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
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“In the current study, we present an application of an optimized AlphaFold model for virtual screening while addressing HDAC subtype selectivity [45].”
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Drug Discovery for Histone Deacetylase Inhibition: Past, Present and Future of Zinc-Binding Groups
Pires, G. S., Tolomeu, H. V., Rodrigues, D. A., Lima, L. M., Fraga, C. A. M., & Pinheiro, P. D. S. M. (2025) · Pharmaceuticals · doi:10.3390/ph18040577 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“However, the high flexibility and large contact surface of this region promote favorable interactions between the Cap group and various HDACs, limiting selectivity—particularly when the Cap groups themselves are also flexible [22].”
InfluentialHydrazides as Inhibitors of Histone Deacetylases
Carreiras, M. C., & Marco, J. L. (2024) · Journal of Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.jmedchem.4c00541 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
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Evolution of Slow-Binding Inhibitors Targeting Histone Deacetylase Isoforms
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Epigenetic dysregulation in cancer: mechanisms, diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic strategies
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“Histone modification, specifically through the processes of acetylation and dea-cetylation, is recognized as a central epigenetic mechanism regulating the architecture of chromatin and the transcriptional activity of genes [151].”
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“Class I, II and IV are called zinc-dependent HDACs, while class III is mostly called sirtuins, and they require NAD+ for their catalytic activity.”
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“The current trends focus on modifying the cap and optimizing the linker region to achieve selectivity (Melesina et al. 2021).”
Gerokonstantis, D. T., Mantzourani, C., Gkikas, D., Wu, K., Hoang, H. N., Triandafillidi, I., Barbayianni, I., Kanellopoulou, P., Kokotos, A. C., Moutevelis‐Minakakis, P., et al. (2023) · Journal of Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c01422 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Lanka, G., Banerjee, S., Regula, S., Adhikari, N., & Ghosh, B. (2024) · Journal of Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics · doi:10.1080/07391102.2024.2429020 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Therefore, to overcome these disadvantages and limitations, there is an imperative need to develop isoform-selective inhibitors with improved selectivity and potency (Melesina et al., 2021; Routholla et al., 2021).”
Medicinal chemistry advances in targeting class I histone deacetylases
Abdallah, D. I., de Araujo, E. D., Patel, N. H., Hasan, L. S., Moriggl, R., Krämer, O. H., & Gunning, P. T. (2023) · Exploration of Targeted Anti-tumor Therapy · doi:10.37349/etat.2023.00166 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“HDACi pharmacophore The vast majority of HDACi developed to date have exploited the Zn2+ center in the catalytic tunnel of HDACs by employing an electron-rich moiety commonly known as a ZN-binding group (ZBG) [8].”
BackgroundNguyen, H. P., Tran, Q. D., Nguyễn, C. Q., Hoa, T. P., Bình, T. D., Thao, H. N., Huê, B. T. B., Tuân, N. T., Đăng, Q. L., Nguyen, T. Q. C., et al. (2022) · RSC Advances · doi:10.1039/d2ra01969h · Cited by 15 · see citing works
An in silico drug repurposing approach to identify HDAC1 inhibitors against glioblastoma
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“Human HDACs consist of 18 isoforms and are categorized as Class I (HDAC 1,2,3 and 8); Class II (Class IIa: HDAC 4,5,7,9 and Class IIb: HDAC 6,10); Class III (Sirtuins SIRT 1–7) and Class IV (HDAC 11) (Melesina et al., 2021).”
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HDAC8 As an Emerging Target in Drug Discovery With Special Emphasis on Medicinal Chemistry
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Self-citationDevelopment and Characterization of the First Selective Class IIb Histone Deacetylase Degraders
Zhai, S., Honin, I., Schäker‐Hübner, L., Hanl, M., Jacobi, L., Dressler, F., Pieńkowska, D. E., König, P., Gerhartz, J., Voget, R., et al. (2025) · Journal of Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.jmedchem.5c00674 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
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“Although several pan-HDAC inhibitors have been approved for clinical use in tumor treatment, their therapeutic utility is limited by a poor safety profile, mainly due to their lack of selectivity, and their efficacy as monotherapies has been suboptimal [26,27].”
BackgroundАлександрович, Ю. П., Aleksandrova, Y. R., & Евгеньевна, Н. М. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26178629 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“However, most ZBGs (hydroxamic and carboxylic acids, thiols, epoxy ketones, alkyl and aryl ketones) do not have high specificity [47].”
Wu, K., Zhang, H., Zhou, L., Chen, L., Mo, C., Xu, S., Lin, J., Kong, L., & Chen, X. (2022) · Experimental Cell Research · doi:10.1016/j.yexcr.2022.113362 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
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“First-generation HDACIs target the catalytic site without selectivity, whereas second-generation HDACIs can discriminate between different family members [16,17].”
Li, Y., Liu, S., Xu, X., Xu, J., Yang, L., & Hu, L. (2023) · Journal of Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics · doi:10.1080/07391102.2023.2272751 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“The majority of pharmacophore models for HDAC inhibitors consist of three fundamental components (Figure 1) (Melesina et al., 2021).”
Novel HDAC1 and HDAC2 Inhibitors for Treating Diseases
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“Significant effort has been invested into identifying the structural features that can increase isoform selectivity in HDAC inhibitors [6].”
BackgroundTruong, N., Goodis, C. C., Cottingham, A. L., Shaw, J. R., Fletcher, S., & Pearson, R. M. (2022) · ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science · doi:10.1021/acsptsci.2c00119 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
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“…hydrophobic substrate binding tunnel, and a linker group connected with a CAP group occupying the entrance to the active site [17,18]. group (ZBG) that repress the hydrolysis of acetyl group in the lysine residue, and B is a linker group that connects CAP with entrance to the active site [17,18].”
BackgroundMethodChan, A. M., Mitchell, A., Grogan, L., Shapiro, P. S., & Fletcher, S. (2024) · Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.bmc.2024.117680 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
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“Structurally, currently identified HDACIs typically follow a common pharmacophoric feature by mimicking the structure of the natural substrate lysine, which comprises a surface recognition cap moiety that can tolerate structural variability to accommodate the broad hydrophobic region of HDAC (Cap region); a functional…”
InfluentialMárquez-Cantudo, L., Ramos, A., Coderch, C., & de Pascual‐Teresa, B. (2021) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules26185606 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“However, despite the amount of described HDACis, only a few have been used as POI ligands in the design of HDAC targeted PROTACs: Nexturastat A® (potent and selective HDAC6 inhibitor [171]), Crebinostat® (pan-HDACi) [75], CI-994, and SR-3558 (Class I HDAC inhibitors) [165].”
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Phenylacetyl-/Trolox- Amides: Synthesis, Sigma-1, HDAC-6, and Antioxidant Activities
Flores, R., Iqbal, S., & Sikazwe, D. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms242015295 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Pioneering first-in-class HDAC-ROCK inhibitors as potential multitarget anticancer agents
Beljkaš, M., Ružić, D., Djurić, A., Vuletić, A. M., Nchugoua, G., Jallet, C., Cadet-Daniel, V., Arimondo, P. B., Santibanez, J. F., Srdić‐Rajić, T., et al. (2025) · Future Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.1080/17568919.2025.2459589 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
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“Moreover, further functionality, F, may be grafted onto the ZBG to afford additional interactions within the foot ‐ pocket of the active site cavity (Melesina et al. 2021).”
InfluentialLysine Deacetylase Substrate Selectivity: A Dynamic Ionic Interaction Specific to KDAC8
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Synthesis and structure‐activity relationship of thiol‐based histone deacetylase 6 inhibitors
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“(3) A surface recognition region (Cap) engages in interactions with the enzyme's surface (Melesina et al., 2021).”
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DESIGN AND COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSIS OF NEW ISATIN-IMINE HYBRIDS AS SELECTIVE HDAC6 INHIBITORS
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“3 and table 8) [5].”
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Development of a Cellular Model Mimicking Specific HDAC Inhibitors
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“We have previously reported the general pharmacophore for HDAC inhibitors (Melesina et al. 2021, 2018).”
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Recommended Tool Compounds: Isoform- and Class-Specific Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors
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“Such features have been shown to play a key role in selective ligand recognition, particularly in HDAC8 and Class IIa HDACs [19].”
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Modulation of biological activities in adipose derived stem cells by histone deacetylation
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“This difference in properties among homologous inhibitors likely stems from structural features within the foot pocket of the enzyme’s active site that accommodates the alkyl residue of the hydrazide’s zinc-binding group (ZBG) [53].”
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“1 [14].”
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“For example, modifications of the linker moiety can lead to the inhibition of a specific spectrum of hDacs 16,17 . the currently approved drugs are pan-inhibitory, which can lead to unfavourable side effects 18 . several small-molecule inhibitors targeting class iia hDacs have been reported to…”
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Harnessing Deep Belief Networks for Selective HDAC6 Inhibitors Identification
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“Integrating 3D structural data with computational modelling aids in developing HDAC inhibitors that precisely target specific isoforms, minimizing off-target effects and enhancing therapeutic potential (Melesina et al. 2021).”
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“…of class-selective HDAC inhibitors, two effective techniques are increasingly used: the introduction of class-selec-tive ZBGs and/or bulky substituents into the structure of inhibitors that recognize the so-called active center pockets of HDACs of different classes, as discussed above [85].”
Repositioning HDAC Inhibitors for Glioma Treatment: Synthesis and Biological Evaluation
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Epigenetic Control of Stress-Induced Depression: Emerging Roles of HDAC3 and HDAC6
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“Isoform selectivity could be achieved through the design of the cap and linker region of the inhibitor via a structure-based approach or through the addition of interactions with the specific isoform side, lower, and foot pockets near the catalytic site [168].”
A 2-in-1 Strategy for the Discovery of Compact HDAC8 Protac Degraders
Liu, Y., Awasthee, N., Xiao, Y., Hale, S. M., Hu, W., He, M. Y., Gour, A., Yang, W., Sharma, A., Kridel, R., et al. (2026) · Journal of Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.jmedchem.6c01636
- Authors
- Melesina, J., Simoben, C. V., Praetorius, L., Bülbül, E. F., Robaa, D., & Sippl, W.
- Affiliations
- Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Sippl, Wolfgang
- Venue
- ChemMedChem
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2021-02-19
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 1336-1359
- ISSN
- 1860-7179 (ISSN-L)
- 1860-7187
- OpenAlex
- W3119240638
- Cited by
- 118
- References
- 194
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 8
- FWCI
- 1.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- ChemMedChem (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (SI846/15-1)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors Research
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Enzyme function and inhibition
- Physical Sciences › Chemistry › Organic Chemistry › Synthesis and biological activity
- Keywords
- histone deacetylase inhibitors, selective HDAC inhibitors, structure-activity relationship, drug design, zinc-binding groups, linker optimization, side pockets, cancer therapy
- MeSH terms
- Binding Sites, Histone Deacetylases, Humans, Structure-Activity Relationship, Zinc, Drug Design, Protein Isoforms, Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors, Molecular Docking Simulation
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