The assessment of body image investment: An extensive revision of the appearance schemas inventory
Abstract
Objective: The Appearance Schemas Inventory (ASI) is a 14‐item instrument that assesses body image investment in relation to certain beliefs or assumptions about the importance, meaning, and influence of appearance in one's life. Despite empirical support of the ASI, critical examination evinces several limitations of this assessment. These problems entail the inclusion of explicitly self‐evaluative items and social stereotypes, few behavioral items, and a repeated failure to find expected gender differences on the ASI. Method: We initially constructed a 45‐item measure (40 new items plus 5 original items) and administered it, along with the original ASI and other validational assessments, to 603 college students (468 women and 135 men). Results: The end result was a 20‐item revision of the inventory (ASI‐R), which included two factors: Self‐Evaluative Salience and Motivational Salience. For both genders, the composite ASI‐R and its two factors had high internal consistency and were significantly convergent with other pertinent measures of body image and psychosocial functioning. The ASI‐R and its two subscales showed significant gender differences, whereas the original ASI did not. We also examined racial differences on the ASI‐R, its correlations with body mass, and its unique contribution to the prediction of disturbed eating attitudes. Discussion: We offer this measure as an improved, psychometrically sound replacement for the ASI. © 2004 by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Int J Eat Disord 35: 305–316, 2004.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Cites
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Williams, J. B. W., & First, M. B. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.013.104 · Cited by 109,841 · see citing works
Society and the Adolescent Self-Image
Rosenberg, M. (1965) · doi:10.1515/9781400876136 · Cited by 30,126 · see citing works
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR)
American Psychiatric Association (2000) · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890423349 · Cited by 11,069 · see citing works
The Eating Attitudes Test: psychometric features and clinical correlates
Garner, D. M., Olmsted, M., Bohr, Y., & Garfinkel, P. (1982) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291700049163 · Cited by 4,902 · see citing works
Self-schemata and processing information about the self.
Markus, H. R. (1977) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.35.2.63 · Cited by 3,911 · see citing works
Kenny, A. (2018) · ANU Press eBooks · doi:10.22459/cschd.08.2018.04 · Cited by 3,242 · see citing works
Resilience in the Face of Catastrophe: Optimism, Personality, and Coping in the Kosovo Crisis
Riolli, L., Savicki, V., & Cepani, A. (2002) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2002.tb02765.x · Cited by 2,166 · see citing works
Body image: a handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice
(2003) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.40-3703 · Cited by 1,828 · see citing works
The sociocultural attitudes towards appearance scale‐3 (SATAQ‐3): Development and validation
Thompson, J. K., van den Berg, P., Roehrig, M., Guarda, Á. S., & Heinberg, L. J. (2004) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.10257 · Cited by 1,178 · see citing works
International Journal of Eating Disorders
(2006) · doi:10.1002/(issn)1098-108x · Cited by 1,147 · see citing works
Body Images: Development, Deviance, and Change
Levy, N. B. (1992) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.149.3.401-b · Cited by 877 · see citing works
Attitudinal Body-Image Assessment: Factor Analysis of the Body-Self Relations Questionnaire
Brown, T. A., Cash, T. F., & Mikulka, P. J. (1990) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa5501&2_13 · Cited by 783 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive-Behavioral Perspectives on Body Image
Cash, T. F. (2012) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-384925-0.00054-7 · Cited by 685 · see citing works
Self-citationCash, T. F., Pruzinsky, T., Grazer, F. M., & Sorensen, C. L. (1991) · Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery · doi:10.1097/00006534-199108000-00041 · Cited by 665 · see citing works
Self-citationSchwartz, M. B., & Brownell, K. D. (2004) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/s1740-1445(03)00007-x · Cited by 637 · see citing works
Eating Disorders and Obesity—a Comprehensive Handbook
Levine, A. S. (2003) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/77.5.1343 · Cited by 588 · see citing works
Gender Differences in Body Image Are Increasing
Feingold, A., & Mazzella, R. (1998) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00036 · Cited by 562 · see citing works
The impact of body image experiences: development of the body image quality of life inventory.
Cash, T. F., & Fleming, E. C. (2002) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.10033 · Cited by 561 · see citing works
Self-citationMarkus, H. R., Crane, M., Bernstein, S., & Siladi, M. (1982) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.38 · Cited by 544 · see citing works
Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., Sherry, S. B., Habke, M., Parkin, M., Lam, R. W., McMurtry, B., Ediger, E., Fairlie, P., & Stein, M. B. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.6.1303 · Cited by 504 · see citing works
Body‐Image Attitudes: What Difference Does Gender Make?1
Muth, J. L., & Cash, T. F. (1997) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1997.tb01607.x · Cited by 457 · see citing works
Self-citationTamburrino, M. (2003) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.289.14.1861 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
Computer-Assisted Research Design and Analysis
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2000) · Cited by 372 · see citing works
The Development and Validation of the Body-Image Ideals Questionnaire
Cash, T. F., & Szymanski, M. L. (1995) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa6403_6 · Cited by 352 · see citing works
Self-citationDevelopment of the Appearance Schemas Inventory: A new cognitive body-image assessment
Cash, T. F., & Labarge, A. S. (1996) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/bf02229242 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
Self-citationCash, T. F., Morrow, J. A., Hrabosky, J. I., & Perry, A. A. (2004) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.72.6.1081 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Self-citationHewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., & Ediger, E. (1995) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/1098-108x(199512)18:4 · Cited by 314 · see citing works
Body image, eating disorders, and obesity: An integrative guide for assessment and treatment.
(2001) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10502-000 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
Body-Image Attitudes: Evaluation, Investment, and Affect
Cash, T. F. (1994) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1994.78.3c.1168 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Body Image Workbook: An 8-Step Program for Learning to Like Your Looks
Cash, T. F. (1997) · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Self-citationBody Image, Eating Disorders, and Obesity: An Integrative Guide for Assessment and Treatment
Weiss, F. (2000) · American Journal of Psychotherapy · doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2000.54.1.128 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Primary prevention of eating disorders: Might it do more harm than good?
Carter, J. C., Stewart, D. A., Dunn, V. J., & Fairburn, C. G. (1997) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-108x(199709)22:2 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Interpreting weight: the social management of fatness and thinness
(2000) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.37-3383 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Cash, T. F. (2002) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.10100 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Self-citationGender attitudes, feminist identity, and body images among college women
Cash, T. F., Ancis, J. R., & Strachan, M. D. (1997) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/bf02766682 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Self-citationThe treatment of body image disturbances.
Cash, T. F. (2001) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10502-004 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive-behavioral body image therapy: Comparative efficacy of group and modest-contact treatments
Grant, J. R., & Cash, T. F. (1995) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(05)80083-8 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Self-citationSzymanski, M. L., & Cash, T. F. (1995) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.1995.14.2.134 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Self-citationCash, T. F., Pruzinsky, T., & Cline, C. J. (1992) · Annals of Plastic Surgery · doi:10.1097/00000637-199207000-00023 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Self-citationCash, T. F., & Hrabosky, J. I. (2003) · Eating Disorders · doi:10.1080/10640260390218657 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Self-citationSelf-help for a negative body image: A comparison of components of a cognitive-behavioral program
Strachan, M. D., & Cash, T. F. (2002) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(02)80027-2 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Self-citationThe self-schema model: A theoretical approach to the self-concept in eating disorders
Stein, K. F. (1996) · Archives of Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/s0883-9417(96)80072-0 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Labarge, A. S., Cash, T. F., & Brown, T. A. (1998) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1023/a:1018732423464 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Self-citationCash, T. F., & Lavallee, D. M. (1997) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1023/a:1025041926081 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Self-citationBulimia in an Egyptian Student: A case study
Ford, K. A. (1992) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/1098-108x(199205)11:4 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
What is and what is not positive body image? Conceptual foundations and construct definition
Tylka, T. L., & Wood-Barcalow, N. L. (2015) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.04.001 · Cited by 1,293 · see citing works
Teixeira, P. J., Carraça, E. V., Marques, M. M., Rutter, H., Oppert, J.-M., De Bourdeaudhuij, I., Lakerveld, J., & Brug, J. (2015) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-015-0323-6 · Cited by 711 · see citing works
Cash, T. F., Phillips, K. A., Santos, M. T., & Hrabosky, J. I. (2004) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2004.10.001 · Cited by 420 · see citing works
Self-citationAssessment of body image flexibility: The Body Image-Acceptance and Action Questionnaire
Sandoz, E. K., Wilson, K. G., Merwin, R. M., & Kate Kellum, K. (2013) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2013.03.002 · Cited by 396 · see citing works
Bardone-Cone, A. M., Harney, M. B., Maldonado, C. R., Lawson, M. A., Robinson, D. P., Smith, R., & Tosh, A. (2010) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.11.001 · Cited by 392 · see citing works
Cash, T. F., Santos, M. T., & Williams, E. F. (2005) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2004.07.008 · Cited by 348 · see citing works
Self-citationA study of body image in long‐term breast cancer survivors
Falk Dahl, C. A., Reinertsen, K. V., Nesvold, I., Fosså, S. D., & Dahl, A. A. (2010) · Cancer · doi:10.1002/cncr.25251 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
Body Image and Obesity in Adulthood
Sarwer, D. B., Thompson, J. K., & Cash, T. F. (2005) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.psc.2004.09.002 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Self-citationMoss, T. P. (2005) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2005.03.004 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
de Vries, D. A., Peter, J., Nikken, P., & de Graaf, H. (2014) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-014-0412-6 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Rodgers, R. F. (2016) · Adolescent Research Review · doi:10.1007/s40894-015-0017-5 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Fingeret, M. C., Vidrine, D. J., Reece, G. P., Gillenwater, A. M., & Gritz, E. R. (2010) · Head & Neck · doi:10.1002/hed.21181 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Dignard, N. A. L., & Jarry, J. L. (2021) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.11.012 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Kim, H. M. (2021) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444820956368 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Screening for Body Image Dissatisfaction in Patients with Advanced Cancer: A Pilot Study
Rhondali, W., Chisholm, G. B., Filbet, M., Kang, D.-H., Hui, D., Cororve Fingeret, M., & Bruera, E. (2015) · Journal of Palliative Medicine · doi:10.1089/jpm.2013.0588 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Bödicker, C., Reinckens, J., Höfler, M., & Hoyer, J. (2022) · Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma · doi:10.1007/s40653-021-00379-5 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Salient body image concerns of patients with cancer undergoing head and neck reconstruction
Teo, I., Fronczyk, K. M., Guindani, M., Vannucci, M., Ulfers, S. S., Hanasono, M. M., & Fingeret, M. C. (2016) · Head & Neck · doi:10.1002/hed.24415 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Espinoza, P., Penelo, E., & Raich, R. M. (2013) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2012.11.004 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Yu, U., & Jung, J. (2018) · Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal · doi:10.1111/fcsr.12284 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
A Systematic Review of Body Image Measures for People Diagnosed with Head and Neck Cancer (HNC)
Shunmuga Sundaram, C., Dhillon, H. M., Butow, P. N., Sundaresan, P., & Rutherford, C. (2019) · Supportive Care in Cancer · doi:10.1007/s00520-019-04919-6 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Patient Reported Outcome Measures (PROMS) for Body Image in Dermatology: A Systematic Review
Kristensen, J. K., Nielsen, C., & Haloob, N. (2022) · Skin Health and Disease · doi:10.1002/ski2.167 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
- Authors
- Cash, T. F., Melnyk, S. E., & Hrabosky, J. I.
- Affiliations
- Old Dominion University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Cash, Thomas F.
- ORCID
- Cash, Thomas F.
- Venue
- International Journal of Eating Disorders
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2004-03-22
- Volume
- 35
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 305-316
- ISSN
- 0276-3478 (ISSN-L)
- 1098-108X
- OpenAlex
- W2111386815
- Cited by
- 577
- References
- 46
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 56 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 23 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 35 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 37 · 2012: 26
- FWCI
- 18.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- International Journal of Eating Disorders (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Body Image and Dysmorphia Studies
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Keywords
- appearance schemas, instrument revision, motivational salience, gender differences, racial differences, body mass, university students, psychometric validation
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Body Image, Female, Humans, Male, Surveys and Questionnaires, Self Concept, Reproducibility of Results, Body Mass Index
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
