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Transactional theory and research on emotions and coping
Abstract
In this article we examine the fundamental premises of our cognitive‐relational theory of emotion and coping and assess our progress in examining them through 10 years of programmatic empirical research. Our discussion involves the metatheoretical topics of transaction and relationship, process, and emotion as a system. The person‐environment relationship is mediated by two key processess: cognitive appraisal and coping. We evaluate the findings of our research on these processes, their dynamic interplay, their antecedents, and their short‐term and long‐term outcomes. In the final section we highlight major substantive and methodological issues that need to be addressed. These include issues surrounding the theory and measurement of appraisal, functional and dysfunctional coping, causal inference, microanalytic vs macroanalytic research strategies, objective vs subjective approaches and confounding, and the problem of method variance.
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“The transactional model of stress and coping (Lazarus and Folkman, 1987; Folkman and Moskowitz, 2004) indicates that the way any person adapts to this kind of stressor varies according to how they think about the stressor and the actions and behaviors they initiate to manage the demands of the situation; that is, the pain and challenges of living with endometriosis (Folkman and Moskowitz, 2004).”
From Self-management strategies to consider to combat endometriosis symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic (2020) · cites this paper as Lazarus and Folkman, 1987
In the citing paper
“Additionally, the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987) provides a framework for understanding individual differences in responses to coping responses to stress.”
From Content Moderator Mental Health and Associations with Coping Styles: Replication and Extension of Previous Studies (2025) · cites this paper as Lazarus & Folkman, 1987
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InfluentialCoping strategies and health-related quality of life after stroke
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“This finding supports Haynes and Love (2004) and the majority of stress literature, that negative stressors are perceived adversely and that this relationship may not change until resources are employed to attend to the situation (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984, 1987).”
BackgroundInfluentialRockliff, H., Lightman, S. L., Rhidian, E., Buchanan, H., Gordon, U. D., & Vedhara, K. (2014) · Human Reproduction Update · doi:10.1093/humupd/dmu010 · Cited by 160
“The transactional theory of coping states (Folkman et al., 1986; Lazarus, 1987) the context in which coping strategies are employed is as important as the strategy itself.”
BackgroundElst, T. V., den Broeck, A. V., Cuyper, N. D., & Witte, H. D. (2014) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12068 · Cited by 160
“Our notion of perceived control relates to Bandura’s (1982) concept of self-efficacy (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987) and to job self-efficacy in particular.”
MethodSelf-efficacy, adjustment style and well-being in breast cancer patients: a longitudinal study
Rottmann, N., Dalton, S. O., Christensen, J., Frederiksen, K., & Johansen, C. (2010) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-010-9653-1 · Cited by 158
“The findings are in accordance with the transactional theory [11, 12] and generally support our hypotheses.”
BackgroundResultWang, Z., Liu, H., Yu, H., Wu, Y., Chang, S., & Wang, L. (2017) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-017-1533-6 · Cited by 157
“Based on the transaction theoretical framework, studies on the process of dealing with stress should consist of not only independent and outcome variables, but also mediating variables that determine the individual more or less successful adaption to the stress [24].”
BackgroundXu, C., Yanjun, X., Song, X., Zhang, Q., Liu, X., Shao, Y., Xu, X., Peng, L., & Li, M. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00858 · Cited by 154
“According to the appraisal theories of emotion, it is an individual’s subjective appraisal of an event that leads to a specific emotional reaction rather than the event itself (26).”
BackgroundThe stigma of being a refugee: A mixed-method study of refugees' experiences of vocational stress
Baranik, L. E., Hurst, C. S., & Eby, L. T. D. T. (2017) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2017.09.006 · Cited by 153
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Cheng, C., & Cheung, M. W. L. (2005) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00331.x · Cited by 149
“The transactional theory of coping (Lazarus, 1993; Lazarus & Folkman, 1987) proposes that the coping process begins with individuals' cognitive appraisal of whether an encountered stressful event will have an impact on them (i.e., primary appraisal ).”
BackgroundInfluentialVenz, L., & Shoshan, H. N. (2021) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726721990438 · Cited by 148
“Toward this end, theoretically, we place knowledge hiding, more precisely its two deceptive forms, namely playing dumb and evasive hiding (e.g., Burmeister et al., 2019), within the transactional model of stress and coping (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984, 1987).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMonteiro, N. M., Balogun, S. K., & Oratile, K. N. (2014) · International Journal of Adolescence and Youth · doi:10.1080/02673843.2014.908784 · Cited by 148
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“In other words, personal characteristics (e.g., goals, mastery, and internal locus of control) and environmental factors (e.g., constraints, demands, resources such as social support networks) collectively affect the person’s cognitive appraisals on stressful encounters (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987).”
BackgroundInfluentialWhy individuals in larger teams perform worse
Mueller, J. (2011) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2011.08.004 · Cited by 147
“…stress by contributing to the appraisal process in positive ways (Folkman & Lazarus, 1985; Folkman, Lazarus, Dunkel-Schetter, DeLongis, & Gruen, 1986), this perception may also increase the likelihood that members engage in positive coping strategies such as seeking help (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987).”
Backgroundde Vente, W., Kamphuis, J. H., Emmelkamp, P. M. G., & Blonk, R. W. B. (2008) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/1076-8998.13.3.214 · Cited by 147
“An influential theory in the field of stress and health is the transactional theory of Lazarus and Folkman (1987) .”
BackgroundCrisis decision theory: Decisions in the face of negative events.
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“The literature has identified two coping strategies: problem‐ focused coping targets the root causes of stress to reduce the stress and its impact; the other is emotion‐focused coping, which aims to lessen or reduce adverse emotional reactions to stressful events.(27,28) In the context of a pandemic, adequate coping s…”
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Coping in adolescence: Empirical evidence for a theoretically based approach to assessing coping
Phelps, S. B., & Jarvis, P. A. (1994) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/bf01536724 · Cited by 143
“the stressor (Folkman and Lazarus, 1980; Forsythe and Compas, 1987; Lazarus and Folkman, 1987 ).”
BackgroundBeighton, C., & Wills, J. (2019) · Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1111/jar.12617 · Cited by 143
“The majority of studies were not initially theoretically grounded, but the findings of two studies (12,19) confirmed the validity of the transactional model of stress (TMS) (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987) con‐ cluding that many of the positive aspects/satisfactions described were linked to, or outcomes of, successful strate…”
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“Based on the transactional stress theory (Lazarus and Folkman, 1987), the PASA scale is composed of two situation-specific subscales assessing “Primary appraisal” (i.”
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“For simplicity, the authors depicted a linear section of the whole complex dynamic model and indicated the recursive nature of the model and the parallelism of the short- and long-term effects as footnotes to the figure (Lazarus and Folkman, 1987).”
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BackgroundNurmi, J., Poole, M. E., & Kalakoski, V. (1994) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/bf01538040 · Cited by 137
“For example, if they reflect threats for the future, then they can provide a basis for directing coping behavior intended to handle the future ( Lazarus and Folkman, 1987; Nurmi, 1992).”
BackgroundDoes owning a pet protect older people against loneliness?
Pikhartova, J., Bowling, A., & Victor, C. R. (2014) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/1471-2318-14-106 · Cited by 136
“Such interventions also build on work by Lazarrus and Folkman [27] indicating that human-pet attachment could provide a unique and affordable source of social support [28].”
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“It has two main functions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987): altering the troubled person–environment relationship (problem-focused coping); and regulating emotional distress (emotion-focused or cognitive coping).”
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“While traditional stress and coping theories identify appraisal as an initial step toward resolving one’s stressors (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987), racial stress and trauma in relationships is often difficult to appraise and thus resolve because youth and parents live in a culture of and are rewarded…”
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“…their experiences and emotions either through problem-focused coping, which seeks to address the relationships between the individual and external stimuli, or emotion-focused coping, which seeks to address the individuals’ own emotional response to the external stimuli (Lazarus and Folkman 1987).”
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“, a subset of negative emotions, see (68, 69)].”
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“, confrontive coping, seeking social support, planful problem-solving) help an individual to be able to endure and/or minimize the threat, targeting the causes of stress in practical ways [24].”
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“These strategies target the root causes of stress and provide long-term stress relief [8,9].”
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“According to this framework, active coping behaviors can lead employees to enact effective change- oriented proactive efforts that facilitate the accomplishment of work outcomes (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984, 1987; Folkman, 2011; Biggs et al., 2017).”
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“The significance of subjective interpretation in understanding coping mechanisms was suggested by Lazarus and Folkman (1987).”
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Mattern, J., & Bauer, J. (2014) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2014.05.004 · Cited by 118
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Farley, S., Mokhtar, D. M. M., Ng, K., & Niven, K. R. (2023) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678373.2023.2169968 · Cited by 117
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“Different cognitive evaluations on stress lead to different behavioral responses, which have different long-term effects on individuals [18].”
BackgroundShamsi, M., Iakovleva, T. A., Olsen, E., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182211888 · Cited by 117
“Based on these previous findings, Crawford, LePine, and Rich [42], in a meta-analysis, suggested a challenge-hindrance stressor framework rooted in transactional stress theory [43].”
ResultDeterminants of posttraumatic adjustment in adolescents from Sarajevo who experienced war
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Workplace bullying: a cross‐level assessment
Heames, J. T., & Harvey, M. (2006) · Management Decision · doi:10.1108/00251740610707695 · Cited by 115
L'apprentissage autorégulé : perspectives en formation d'adultes
Cosnefroy, L. (2011) · Savoirs · doi:10.3917/savo.023.0009 · Cited by 115
Elovainio, M. J., Mika Kivimaki, B., Steen, N., & Kalliomäki‐Levanto, T. (2000) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/1076-8998.5.2.269 · Cited by 112
Zhou, T., Guan, R., & Sun, L. (2021) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12267 · Cited by 111
Chronic stress and endothelial dysfunction: mechanisms, experimental challenges, and the way ahead
Sher, L. D., Geddie, H., Olivier, L., Cairns, M., Truter, N., Beselaar, L., & Essop, M. F. (2020) · American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpheart.00244.2020 · Cited by 111
Contributors to well-being and stress in parents of children with autism spectrum disorder
Costa, A. P., Steffgen, G., & Ferring, D. (2017) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2017.01.007 · Cited by 110
“This model is based on the cognitive-relational theory of stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987) which conceptualizes stress as resulting from a recursive dynamic interaction between environmental antecedents such as a life-event or daily hassles (e.g. demands, constraints and resources, ambiguity, and…”
MethodHertel, G., Rauschenbach, C., Thielgen, M. M., & Krumm, S. (2015) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.1995 · Cited by 108
Ironic evaluation processes: effects of thought suppression on evaluations of older job applicants
Kulik, C. T., Perry, E. L., & Bourhis, A. C. (2000) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/1099-1379(200009)21:6 · Cited by 71
Coping in Parents of Children with Congenital Heart Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-synthesis
Lumsden, M., Smith, D. M., & Wittkowski, A. (2019) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-019-01406-8 · Cited by 106
Dennis, T. A., & Kelemen, D. A. (2009) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025408098024 · Cited by 106
“The “Ways of Coping” model (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987) distinguishes between two basic categories of adult emotion-regulation strategies: “emotionfocused” in which effort is directed internally towards improving the negative emotional state itself (e.g., turning attention away from negative…”
BackgroundIt's Time to Think about Time in Health Psychology
Scholz, U. (2019) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12156 · Cited by 104
Cheng, C., Sun, P., & Mak, K. (2015) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2015.0121 · Cited by 104
“11,12 According to the trans-actional theory of coping, 13 some individuals who consider the event a challenge tend to confront and tackle the problem directly (i.e., approach coping), whereas those who consider the same event an uncontrollable threat tend to refrain from facing it (i.e., avoidant…”
Gabriel, I., Creedy, D., & Coyne, E. (2020) · Nursing Open · doi:10.1002/nop2.543 · Cited by 103
“Lazarus and Folkman's transactional model of stress and coping evaluates the processes of coping with numerous stressors, such as symptoms, treatment, work stress, family stress and the challenge of caregiving (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987).”
BackgroundPsychosocial theory and the creation of the risky self
Ogden, J. (1995) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/0277-9536(94)00150-r · Cited by 103
de Ruiter, J. A., Poorthuis, A. M. G., & Koomen, H. M. Y. (2021) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2021.103467 · Cited by 104
How do Older Adults feel about engaging with Cyber‐Security?
Morrison, B. A., Coventry, L., & Briggs, P. (2021) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1002/hbe2.291 · Cited by 103
Saleem, F., Malik, M. I., Qureshi, S. S., Farid, M. F., & Qamar, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.595119 · Cited by 103
Nascimento, L., Correia, M. F., & Califf, C. B. (2023) · Technology in Society · doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2023.102428 · Cited by 104
Effects of student teachers’ coping behaviour
Admiraal, W., Korthagen, F. A. J., & Wubbels, T. (2000) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/000709900157958 · Cited by 102
“Stress is dee ned as a particular relation between the person and the environment appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and disrupting the daily routines ( Lazarus & Folkman, 1987 ).”
BackgroundCoping strategies in anxious surgical patients
Aust, H., Rüsch, D., Schuster, M., Sturm, T., Brehm, F., & Nestoriuc, Y. (2016) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-016-1492-5 · Cited by 102
“Rather, stress is a result of the subjective appraisal of the threat [9].”
BackgroundTeacher Stress and Coping: The Role of Personal and Job Characteristics
Alhija, F. N.-A. (2015) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.03.415 · Cited by 101
“According to Lazarus and Folkman's (1987) transactional model of stress and coping, which concentrate on how challenging events create stressful experience, when confronted by a given event, the individual engages in two consecutive processes of appraisal. The first is a primary appraisal through which the event is ju…”
Metadata
- Authors
- Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Berkeley (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lazarus, Richard S.
- Venue
- European Journal of Personality
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 1987-09
- Volume
- 1
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 141-169
- ISSN
- 0890-2070 (ISSN-L)
- 1099-0984
- OpenAlex
- W2106232823
- Semantic Scholar
- 61c4bdaca0b53fc1a9736b946f6a3f5ddd1759b2
- Cited by
- 3,053
- References
- 91
- Citations by year
- 2026: 264 · 2025: 276 · 2024: 215 · 2023: 246 · 2022: 236 · 2021: 273 · 2020: 247 · 2019: 163 · 2018: 137 · 2017: 116 · 2016: 104 · 2015: 81 · 2014: 95 · 2013: 73 · 2012: 68
- FWCI
- 15.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- European Journal of Personality (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Resilience and Mental Health
- Keywords
- transactional theory, emotions, coping, cognitive appraisal, person-environment relationship, causal inference, confounding, method variance, emotion measurement
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