Hikikomori: experience in Japan and international relevance
Open accessAbstract
The appearance of people in Japan, especially young men, who stopped going to school or the workplace and spent most of the time withdrawn into their homes for months or years, came to be seen as an increasing social phenomenon called Shakaiteki hikikomori (social withdrawal) by the late 1990s1. A community-based survey published in 2010 reported that the prevalence of hikikomori was approximately 1.2% of the Japanese population2, and in 2016 a Japanese cabinet report estimated people with hikikomori to be about 541,000 within the age range of 15-39 years. Early epidemiological studies were limited by not being based on strict diagnostic standards. In 2010, Japan's Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare announced a guideline for hikikomori which included a definition ("a situation where a person without psychosis is withdrawn into his/her home for more than six months and does not participate in society such as attending school and/or work")3. More recently, in order not only to diagnose but also to assess the severity of the condition, we proposed even more precise diagnostic criteria based on the levels of physical isolation at home, avoidance of social interactions, and functional impairment or distress, as well as a sustained duration of six months or more4. The Japanese sociocultural background has been traditionally permeated by "amae" (accepting overdependent behaviors) and shame, which may underlie the culture-bound syndrome called Taijin Kyofusho (a severe form of so…
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Previous studies have reported complications with various psychiatric disorders, including anxiety and mood disorders, and the prodromal phase of schizophrenia.
“Contrarily, previous studies [6, 10, 33–35] have reported complications with various psychiatric disorders, including anxiety and mood disorders, and the prodromal phase of schizophrenia.”
Hikikomori is associated with various mental disorders, including mood, anxiety, personality, developmental disorders, and the prodromal phase of schizophrenia.
“Hikikomori is associated with various mental disorders, including mood, anxiety, personality, developmental disorders, and the prodromal phase of schizophrenia [6, 10, 33, 34].”
In Japan, hikikomori is associated with paternal absence, close contact with the mother, and lack of independence.
“In Japan, hikikomori is associated with paternal absence, close contact with the mother, and lack of independence [6, 50].”
Kato et al. suggested the coexistence of several general psychopathological mechanisms underlying shut-in behavior.
“Consistent with our findings, Kato et al. suggested the coexistence of several general psychopathological mechanisms underlying shut-in behavior [6].”
Previous Japanese studies have reported an association of hikikomori with paternal absence, close contact with the mother, and lack of independence.
“Previous Japanese studies have reported an association of hikikomori with paternal absence, close contact with the mother, and lack of independence”
An absent father, a subsequent mother-child closeness and over-interference, and the inhibition of children's independence have been repeatedly mentioned in previous studies as factors in the occurrence of hikikomori in Japan.
“An absent father, a subsequent mother-child closeness and over-interference, and the inhibition of children’s independence have been repeatedly mentioned in previous studies as factors in the occurrence of hikikomori in Japan”
Biopsycho integrative approaches have been used in hidden youth interventions in Japan and Korea, and the psychosocial approach has been used in Hong Kong.
“Biopsycho integrative approaches have been used in hidden youth interventions in Japan (3) and Korea (24), and the psychosocial approach has been used in Hong Kong (28).”
Cites
Teo, A. R., Fetters, M. D., Stufflebam, K., Tateno, M., Balhara, Y., Choi, T. Y., Kanba, S., Mathews, C. A., & Kato, T. A. (2015) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764014535758 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
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Kato, T. A., Kanba, S., & Teo, A. R. (2019) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/pcn.12895 · Cited by 335 · see citing works
Self-citationHamasaki, Y., Pionnié-Dax, N., Dorard, G., Tajan, N., & Hikida, T. (2021) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-020-01064-8 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Media Use during Adolescence: The Recommendations of the Italian Pediatric Society
Bozzola, E., Spina, G., Ruggiero, M., Vecchio, D., Caruso, C., Bozzola, M., Staiano, A. M., Agostiniani, R., Del Vecchio, A., Banderali, G., et al. (2019) · Italian Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1186/s13052-019-0725-8 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Family Features of Social Withdrawal Syndrome (Hikikomori)
Malagón-Amor, Á., Martín-López, L. M., Córcoles, D., González, A., Bellsolà, M., Teo, A. R., Bulbena, A., Pérez, V., & Bergé, D. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00138 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Self-citationDevelopment of 5-day hikikomori intervention program for family members: A single-arm pilot trial
Kubo, H., Urata, H., Sakai, M., Nonaka, S., Saito, K., Tateno, M., Kobara, K., Hashimoto, N., Fujisawa, D., Suzuki, Y., et al. (2020) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e03011 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationHamasaki, Y., Pionnié-Dax, N., Dorard, G., Tajan, N., & Hikida, T. (2022) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-022-04116-6 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Ferrara, P., Franceschini, G., Corsello, G., Mestrovic, J., Giardino, I., Sacco, M., Vural, M., Pettoello-Mantovani, M., & Pop, T. L. (2020) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2020.06.089 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Nonaka, S., Shimada, H., & Sakai, M. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00977 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Nonaka, S., & Sakai, M. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-020-01151-y · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Khiatani, S., Liu, D., Yeo, B. S. S., & Wong, J. C. M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1133659 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Biopsycho integrative approaches have been used in hidden youth interventions in Japan (3) and Korea (24), and the psychosocial approach has been used in Hong Kong (28).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
- Authors
- Kato, T. A., Kanba, S., & Teo, A. R.
- Affiliations
- Kyushu University (JP)
- Venue
- World Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2018-01-19
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 105-106
- ISSN
- 1723-8617 (ISSN-L)
- 2051-5545
- PMC
- PMC5775123
- OpenAlex
- W2789384876
- Cited by
- 135
- References
- 1
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 6
- FWCI
- 42.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- World Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (15K15431, 26713039)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Youth Substance Use and School Attendance
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Psychosomatic Disorders and Their Treatments
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Youth Education and Societal Dynamics
- Keywords
- hikikomori, social withdrawal, social isolation, diagnostic criteria, culture-bound syndromes, amae, shame, taijin kyofusho, social anxiety disorder, parent-child relationship, social skills, functional disability, Japan, young adults, mental health services
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