Why goal-free problems can facilitate learning
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The goal-free effect assumption is supported by empirical research in a variety of experimental contexts.
“In practice, this assumption is supported by empirical research in a variety of experimental contexts (Ayres, 1993; Bobis et al., 1994; Owen & Sweller, 1985; Vollmeyer et al., 1996).”
From Does difficulty moderate learning? A comparative analysis of the desirable difficulties framework and cognitive load theory (2025) · cites this paper as Ayres, 1993
Extraneous load can be reduced by instructional methods such as goal-free tasks, worked examples, completion tasks, integrating information sources, using multiple modalities, and reducing redundancy.
“Extraneous load can be reduced, for example, by the use of goal-free tasks (Ayres, 1993), worked examples (Renkl, 2002) and completion tasks (Van Merrienboer, Schuurman, de Croock, & Paas, 2002), by integrating different sources of information (Ginns, 2006), by using multiple modalities (Ginns, 2005), and by reducing redundancy (Diao & Sweller, 2007).”
From Bridging Cognitive Load and Self-Regulated Learning Research: A complementary approach to contemporary issues in educational research (2017) · cites this paper as Ayres, 1993
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design
Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1023/a:1022193728205 · Cited by 6,023 · see citing works
“Ayres (1993) found that on two-step geometry tasks with conventional problems, most errors occurred during the subgoal rather than the goal phase.”
BackgroundThe Psychology of Learning and Motivation
Ross, B. H. (2012) · Cited by 2,631 · see citing works
Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought
de Jong, T. (2010) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-009-9110-0 · Cited by 1,180 · see citing works
“Ayres (2006b), for example, describes intrinsic load as ‘‘fixed and innate to the task.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialEvolution of human cognitive architecture
Sweller, J. (2003) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(03)01015-6 · Cited by 511 · see citing works
Sweller, J. (2004) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1023/b:truc.0000021808.72598.4d · Cited by 470 · see citing works
Choi, H.-H., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (2014) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-014-9262-6 · Cited by 413 · see citing works
“Most of the early cognitive load research focused exclusively on task characteristics and resulted in CLTeffects such as the goal-free effect (e.g., Ayres 1993; Sweller 1988), the worked example effect (e.g., Paas and Van Merriënboer 1994b; Sweller 1988), the completion effect (e.g., Paas 1992; Van…”
BackgroundExample-Based Learning: Integrating Cognitive and Social-Cognitive Research Perspectives
van Gog, T., & Rummel, N. (2010) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9134-7 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
“The goal-free effect has been studied in cognitive load research with problem-solving tasks (e.g., Ayres 1993; Paas et al. 2001; Sweller and Levine 1982) and shows that learning is enhanced when students are not provided with a specific goal during problem solving.”
BackgroundMarcus, N., Cooper, M., & Sweller, J. (1996) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.88.1.49 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Research into Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional Design at UNSW
Cooper, G. A. (2008) · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Cognitive Load Theory: A Broader View on the Role of Memory in Learning and Education
PAAS, F. G. W. C., & Ayres, P. (2014) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-014-9263-5 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
“…CLT-based instructional methods have focused to a large extent on manipulating aspects of the learning task, such as goal specificity (e.g., Ayres 1993; Paas et al. 2001; Sweller 1988), redundancy (e.g., Sweller and Chandler 1991; Kalyuga et al. 1999; Liu et al. 2011) and split attention…”
BackgroundSelf-citationCognitive Load Theory and Human Movement: Towards an Integrated Model of Working Memory
Sepp, S., Howard, S. J., Tindall‐Ford, S., Agostinho, S., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2019) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-019-09461-9 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Some cognitive processes and their consequences for the organisation and presentation of information
Sweller, J. (1993) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049539308259112 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
de Bruin, A. B. H., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2017) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.06.001 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
“Extraneous load can be reduced, for example, by the use of goal-free tasks (Ayres, 1993), worked examples (Renkl, 2002) and completion tasks (Van Merrienboer, Schuurman, de Croock, & Paas, 2002), by integrating different sources of information (Ginns, 2006), by using multiple modalities (Ginns, 2005), and by reducing…”
Systematic Mathematical Errors and Cognitive Load
Ayres, P. (2001) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1006/ceps.2000.1051 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Self-citationHeyworth, R. M. (1999) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/095006999290787 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Erhel, S., & Jamet, É. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.09.020 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
“This effect has been demonstrated for various kinds of problems, including geometry (Ayres, 1993; Ayres & Sweller, 1990), arithmetic (Sweller, Mawer, & Ward, 1983), mazes (Paas, Camp, & Rikers, 2001; Sweller & Levine, 1982), and physics (Künsting, Wirth, & Paas, 2011; Miller et al., 1999; Wirth,…”
BackgroundInfluentialCognitive Bases of Human Creativity
Sweller, J. (2008) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-008-9091-6 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
The Role of Working Memory in Problem Solving
Hambrick, D. Z., & Engle, R. W. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511615771.007 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
State of the art research into Cognitive Load Theory
Ayres, P., & Gog, T. V. (2009) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.12.007 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“The procedural-motor condition is consistent with a potential explanation based on neuroscience research recently provided by Van Gog, Paas, Marcus, Ayres, and Sweller (in press). They argued that the mirror-neuron system, which is activated when we perform a movement ourselves, but also when we observe someone perfor…”
InfluentialSelf-citationWorking Memory, Motivation, and Teacher-Initiated Learning
Brooks, D. W., & Shell, D. F. (2006) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-006-0353-0 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“Goal free problems in which the learner is asked to tell as much as she/he knows or can figure out in a problem is one (Ayres, 1993; Owen and Sweller, 1985).”
BackgroundSuggestions for graduated exposure to programming concepts using fading worked examples
Gray, S., Clair, C. S., James, R., & Mead, J. (2007) · ACM Conference on International Computing Education Research (ICER) · doi:10.1145/1288580.1288594 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“Without a specific goal in mind the student works forward looking for information about the triangle, applying the specified formulas to determine the circumference, area, or height [2].”
MethodWell-Being as a Cognitive Load Reducing Agent: A Review of the Literature
Hawthorne, B. S., Vella-Brodrick, D., & Hattie, J. (2019) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2019.00121 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Using cognitive load theory to structure computer‐based learning including MOOCs
Chen, O., Woolcott, G., & Sweller, J. (2017) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12188 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“The expertise reversal effect (Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003) provides a limit on most cognitive load effects due to an interaction between the characteristics of learners and tasks. Assume a new, cognitive load theory-based instructional procedure that is superior to a traditional procedure for novice lea…”
BackgroundExplorations in Learning and the Brain
de Jong, T., van Gog, T., Jenks, K., Manlove, S., van Hell, J. G., Jolles, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., van Leeuwen, T. H., & Boschloo, A. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-89512-3 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Goal-Setting in Educational Video Games
Nebel, S., Schneider, S., Schledjewski, J., & Rey, G. D. (2016) · Simulation & Gaming · doi:10.1177/1046878116680869 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“The goal-free effect or goal-setting theory reach their limits when too many unknowns are included (Ayres, 1993) or when the problem becomes too complex.”
BackgroundResearch Paradigms and Perspectives on Learning
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & de Bruin, A. B. H. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5_2 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Kao, S., & Wu, C. (2016) · Information & Management · doi:10.1016/j.im.2016.03.002 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“The main advantage of the goal-free mode is the support of the concept-emphasizing strategy, which can help reduce stage effects or cognitive loads to develop creative ideas [1].”
BackgroundWhich mode is better for knowledge creation?
Kao, S., Wu, C., & Su, P. (2011) · Management Decision · doi:10.1108/00251741111151136 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Cognitive load in algebra: element interactivity in solving equations
Ngu, B. H., Chung, S. F., & Yeung, A. S. (2014) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2013.878019 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“An instructional design will impose cognitive load if it requires the learners to engage in learning activities unrelated to schema acquisition, and this is known as extraneous cognitive load (Ayres, 1993; Sweller & Chandler, 1994).”
BackgroundLearning to think like linguists: A think-aloud study of novice phonology students
Anderson, C. A. (2016) · Language · doi:10.1353/lan.2016.0081 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Huynh, N. T. (2009) · Scholars Commons (Wilfrid Laurier University) · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Using a general problem-solving strategy to promote transfer.
Youssef-Shalala, A., Ayres, P., Schubert, C., & Sweller, J. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000021 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“” Tailored to meet the features of the domain, learners have been asked to find as many distance or velocity variables in physics problems (Sweller, Mawer, & Ward, 1983), distances in trigonometry problems (Owen & Sweller, 1985), and angles in geometry problems (Ayres, 1993).”
BackgroundSelf-citationPrinciples for Designing Effective and Efficient Training of Complex Cognitive Skills
PAAS, F. G. W. C., & van Gog, T. (2009) · Reviews of Human Factors and Ergonomics · doi:10.1518/155723409x448053 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Optimising student cognitive load in computer education
Tuovinen, J. E. (2000) · Australasian Computing Education Conference · doi:10.1145/359369.359405 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“ch*-~-~ conventional problems with specific goals to reach after many steps, to simpler, more general explorations of the content area, leading to better learning [ 2 , 27].”
BackgroundUsing General Problem‐solving Strategies to Generate Ideas in Order to Solve Geography Problems
Youssef, A., Ayres, P., & Sweller, J. (2012) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2888 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationMeasurement of Cognitive Load During Multimedia Learning Activities
Cook, A. E. (2009) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-158-2.ch003 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Trumpower, D. L., Goldsmith, T. E., & Guynn, M. J. (2004) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03206328 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Previous studies have shown the goal specificity effect using transfer problems that are structurally identical to training problems (Ayres, 1993; Bobis et al., 1994; Sweller, 1988; Sweller et al., 1983; Vollmeyer et al., 1996).”
BackgroundInfluentialSunde, K., Cutsforth‐Gregory, J. K., & Hunderfund, A. N. L. (2018) · Journal of Medical Education and Curricular Development · doi:10.1177/2382120518815698 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Pyke, W., Lunau, J., & Javadi, A.-H. (2025) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218241308143 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Task Used Theory Supported Findings Ayres (1993) General problem-solving tasks”
Application to learning and teaching
Harris, K. R., Graham, S. W., & Urdan, T. (2012) · American Psychological Association eBooks · Cited by 15 · see citing works
PAAS, F. G. W. C., & Kirschner, F. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_299 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Quantitative Problem Solving in Science: Cognitive Factors and Directions for Practice.
Heyworth, R. M. (1998) · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Sweller, J., Ayres, P., & Kalyuga, S. (2011) · Cognitive Load Theory · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-8126-4_7 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationAre Inductive Teaching Methods Compatible with Cognitive Load Theory?
Gorbunova, A., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Costley, J. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09828-z · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“This implies that the structure or type of problem-solving task does not require means-ends analysis and does not cause cognitive overload so that learning may occur (Ayres, 1993).”
BackgroundThe effectiveness of goal-free problems for studying triangle similarity in collaborative groups
Purnama, P. W., & Retnowati, E. (2020) · JRAMathEdu (Journal of Research and Advances in Mathematics Education) · doi:10.23917/jramathedu.v6i1.11198 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Learning by the goal-free problem is suggested since it might minimize extraneous cognitive load (Ayres, 1993).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialNunokawa, K. (2001) · The Journal of Mathematical Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0732-3123(01)00069-4 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
LEARNING GOAL-FREE PROBLEMS: COLLABORATIVELY OR INDIVIDUALLY?
Sugiman, S., Retnowati, E., Ayres, P., & Murdanu, M. (2019) · Jurnal Cakrawala Pendidikan · doi:10.21831/cp.v38i3.26914 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationCarbonell, K. B., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198795872.013.12 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
When Capacity Matters: The Role of Working Memory in Problem Solving
Price, J., Catrambone, R., & Engle, R. W. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315091938-3 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Can goal-free problems facilitating students’ flexible thinking?
Maulidya, S. R., Hasanah, R. U., & Retnowati, E. (2017) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/1.4995128 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
PAAS, F. G. W. C., & Kirschner, F. (2012) · Research Online (University of Wollongong) · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Designs of goal free problems for learning central and inscribed angles
Blegur, I. K. S., & Retnowati, E. (2018) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1097/1/012128 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Designs of goal-free problems for trigonometry learning
Retnowati, E., & Maulidya, S. R. (2018) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/983/1/012125 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The importance of understanding: Model space moderates goal specificity effects
Kistner, S., Burns, B. D., Vollmeyer, R., & Kortenkamp, U. (2015) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2015.1076865 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“We do not favour this terminology, because we think that learners always have a goal, so to us it seems contradictory to say, as Youssef-Shalala, Ayres, Schubert, and Sweller (2014) do, that “A goalfree strategy occurs when a conventional problem with a specific goal is replaced by a problem with a nonspecific goal” (…”
BackgroundInfluentialSecond Language Preservice Teachers’ Accessing of Background Knowledge and the Role of Context
Dahlman, A. (2006) · doi:10.7916/d88d07t9 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“A problem solving strategy that requires a lesser amount of cognitive capacity is a socalled goal-free approach (Ayres, 1993; Owen & Sweller, 1985).”
BackgroundKao, S., & Wu, C. (2021) · International Journal of Sociotechnology and Knowledge Development · doi:10.4018/ijskd.2021010107 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Setiawan, D. B., & Susanah, S. (2023) · MATHEdunesa · doi:10.26740/mathedunesa.v12n1.p275-288 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Goal-free problems adalah sebuah strategi pembelajaran untuk meminimalkan extraneous cognitive load sehingga bisa meningkatkan kemampuan pemecahan masalah (Ayres, 1993).”
BackgroundWhy Understanding Instructional Design Requires an Understanding of Human Cognitive Evolution
Neal, L. R., & Miller, D. (2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203759820-21 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Brand, C., Loibl, K., & Rummel, N. (2025) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-025-10074-8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“This is because the problem space is limited so that the number of concepts that can be explored remains the same regardless of whether learners receive a specified or unspecified goal (see Ayres, 1993).”
Setiawan, D., Wasis, W., & Jatmiko, B. (2019) · Mathematics, Informatics, Science, and Education International Conference (MISEIC) · doi:10.2991/miseic-19.2019.48 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Reduce cognitive burden by making the goal of problem solving into a sub goal [20][27] 3.”
BackgroundWilder, M. (2022) · Digital Scholarship - UNLV (University of Nevada Reno) · doi:10.34917/23469766 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Psychologische Befunde zum Lernen mit digitalen Medien – ein Überblick
Schneider, S., Beege, M., Nebel, S., & Rey, G. D. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-36113-6_28 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
TUTAR, İ., Demir, Y., & Diken, E. H. (2020) · Trakya Eğitim Dergisi · doi:10.24315/tred.613276 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Diken, E. H. (2020) · International Journal of Curriculum and Instruction · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Visser, R. D. (2009) · TigerPrints (Clemson University)
The Five Step Programming Process
Leverington, M. (2010)
When Do Nonspecific Goals Help Learning? An Issue of Model Quality.
Kistner, S., Burns, B. D., Vollmeyer, R., & Kortenkamp, U. (2015) · Cognitive Science
The impact of personal creation mode and social role on creation intention
Kao, S., Wu, C., & Zhou, Q.-Y. (2017) · Multidisciplinary International Social Networks Conference (MISNC) · doi:10.1145/3092090.3092124
“Because of no limitation imposed on individual cognition and thinking space, this creation mode sometimes can help individual find out real innovative answers for problems or achieve unexpected creation outcome [11, 12, 13].”
Kognitivno opterećenje i eksterna reprezentacija pravila rješavanja problema "hanojskih tornjeva"
Đapo, N., Marković, M., & Đokić, R. (2017) · Psihologijske teme · doi:10.31820/pt.26.2.1
Goal Specificity and the Generality of Schema Acquisition
Trumpower, D. L., Goldsmith, T. E., & Below, M. (2019) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315782379-187
“The goal specificity effect has been shown in maze learning (Sweller, & Levine, 1982), kinematics (Sweller, Mawer, & Ward, 1983), geometry (Ayres, 1993; Sweller, Mawer, & Ward, 1983), trigonometry (Owen, & Sweller, 1985; Sweller, 1988), and several more complex, dynamic tasks (Miller, Lehman, &…”
BackgroundMoore, K. P. (2019) · UKnowledge (University of Kentucky) · doi:10.13023/etd.2019.115
“Presenters have control of this domain and can reduce it by structuring the information, making the goal nonspecific, and avoiding the split-attention effect, which requires learners to read visuals while listening to the presenter, for instance (e.g., Ayres, 1993).”
BackgroundThe designs of goal-free problems to learn sine and cosine rules
Hilmi, I., Fadlila, N., & Retnowati, E. (2023) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/5.0141561
Surma, T., Vanhees, C., Wils, M., Nijlunsing, J., Crato, N., Hattie, J., Muijs, D., Rata, E., Wiliam, D., & Kirschner, P. A. (2025) · Springer briefs in education · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-74661-1_2
Kar, G., & Diken, E. H. (2025) · Trakya Eğitim Dergisi · doi:10.24315/tred.1629820
Ngu, B. H., Tay, E. G., Phan, H. P., & Usop, H. H. (2026) · International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/0020739x.2026.2633245
Leal, L. D. S., da Costa, R. F., da Silva, E. P., et al. (2026) · Revista de Geopolítica · doi:10.56238/revgeov17n8-111
- Authors
- Ayres, P. L.
- Affiliations
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Ayres, Paul L.
- ORCID
- Ayres, Paul L.
- Venue
- Contemporary Educational Psychology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1993-07
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 376-381
- ISSN
- 0361-476X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2006926379
- Cited by
- 77
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 4 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 1.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Contemporary Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Applied Mathematics › Mathematics Education and Pedagogy
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- stage effects, cognitive load, means-ends analysis, problem solving, novice learners, mathematical problem solving, solution path
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
