Effects of the Physical Environment on Cognitive Load and Learning: Towards a New Model of Cognitive Load

Choi, Hwan-Hee; van Merriënboer, Jeroen J. G.; Paas, Fred

doi:10.1007/s10648-014-9262-6

Cited by 413Visual and Cognitive Learning ProcessesInnovative Teaching and Learning MethodsEducational Environments and Student Outcomes

Effects of the Physical Environment on Cognitive Load and Learning: Towards a New Model of Cognitive Load

Open access

Choi, Hwan-Hee, van Merriënboer, Jeroen J. G., Paas, Fred·2014·Educational Psychology Review

DOI 10.1007/s10648-014-9262-6

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1007/s10648-014-9262-6

Cites

126 of 126 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

We couldn’t retrieve this paper’s full text, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

The new model of cognitive load distinguishes three types of effects of the physical learning environment on cognitive load and learning: cognitive effects (e.g. uncertainty), physiological effects (e.g. stress) and affective effects (e.g. emotions).
“The new model distinguishes three types of effects of the physical learning environment on cognitive load and learning: Cognitive effects (e.g. uncertainty), physiological effects (e.g. stress) and affective effects (e.g. emotions”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Choi et al. 2014

The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
Miller, G. A. (1956) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0043158 · Cited by 17,812 · see citing works
The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
Miller, G. A. (1994) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.101.2.343 · Cited by 17,469 · see citing works
Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning
Sweller, J. (1988) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7 · Cited by 11,048 · see citing works
Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory
Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.127 · Cited by 7,335 · see citing works
The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity
Cowan, N. (2001) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x01003922 · Cited by 6,779 · see citing works
Construal-level theory of psychological distance.
Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0018963 · Cited by 6,618 · see citing works
Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design
Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1023/a:1022193728205 · Cited by 6,023 · see citing works
Self-citation
Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention.
Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.1.1 · Cited by 5,902 · see citing works
Cognitive Load Theory
Sweller, J., Ayres, P., & Kalyuga, S. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_446 · Cited by 5,538 · see citing works
The Extended Mind
Clark, A., & Chalmers, D. (1998) · Analysis · doi:10.1093/analys/58.1.7 · Cited by 5,457 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…actually belong to the cognitive domain of the task has led some researchers to assert the claim that cognition can be extended beyond a brain to be distributed over a system of people and objects within a task (see, Beer 2000; Clark and Chalmers 1998; see also, Wilson 2002, for a discussion).”
Background
Anxiety and cognitive performance: Attentional control theory
Eysenck, M. W., Derakshan, N., Santos, R., & Calvo, M. G. (2007) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.336 · Cited by 5,289 · cited 1× · see citing works
“This anxiety impairs efficient functioning of attention, and may lead to intrusive thoughts about failure in WM, thereby taking WM capacity away from performing on the main task (Eysenck and Calvo 1992; Eysenck et al. 2007).”
Background
Six views of embodied cognition
Wilson, M. (2002) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196322 · Cited by 4,782 · see citing works
Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory.
Tulving, E., & Thomson, D. M. (1973) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0020071 · Cited by 4,540 · see citing works
Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional Design: Recent Developments
Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3801_1 · Cited by 3,041 · see citing works
Self-citation
Short-term retention of individual verbal items.
Peterson, L., & Peterson, M. J. (1959) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0049234 · Cited by 2,939 · see citing works
Storage and Executive Processes in the Frontal Lobes
Smith, E. E., & Jonides, J. (1999) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.283.5408.1657 · Cited by 2,834 · see citing works
Cognitive Load Measurement as a Means to Advance Cognitive Load Theory
Paas, F., Tuovinen, J. E., Tabbers, H., & Van Gerven, P. W. M. (2003) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3801_8 · Cited by 2,527 · see citing works
Self-citation
Anxiety and Performance: The Processing Efficiency Theory
Eysenck, M. W., & Calvo, M. G. (1992) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699939208409696 · Cited by 2,448 · see citing works
Controlled and automatic human information processing: I
Schneider, W. E., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977) · Cited by 2,228 · see citing works
Cognitive Load Theory and Complex Learning: Recent Developments and Future Directions
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Sweller, J. (2005) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-005-3951-0 · Cited by 2,206 · see citing works
Self-citation
Training strategies for attaining transfer of problem-solving skill in statistics: A cognitive-load approach.
Paas, F. G. W. C. (1992) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.429 · Cited by 2,150 · see citing works
Self-citation
Element Interactivity and Intrinsic, Extraneous, and Germane Cognitive Load
Sweller, J. (2010) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9128-5 · Cited by 2,020 · see citing works
The Expertise Reversal Effect
Kalyuga, S., Ayres, P., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2003) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3801_4 · Cited by 1,927 · see citing works
Metacognition
(1994) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/4561.001.0001 · Cited by 1,741 · see citing works
Deficits in Psychologic and Classroom Performance of Children with Elevated Dentine Lead Levels
Needleman, H. L., Gunnoe, C., Leviton, A., Reed, R. B., Peresie, H., Maher, C., & Barrett, P. V. D. (1979) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm197903293001301 · Cited by 1,578 · see citing works
Cognitive load theory in health professional education: design principles and strategies
Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Sweller, J. (2010) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03498.x · Cited by 1,511 · cited 14× · see citing works
“The Original Model of Cognitive Load CLT (Ayres and Paas 2012; Paas et al. 2003a, 2004; Paas and Sweller 2012; Paas and Van Merriënboer 1994a; Sweller et al. 1998; Van Merriënboer and Sweller 2005, 2010) is a theoretical framework based upon our knowledge of human cognitive architecture.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Culture and pedagogy: international comparisons in primary education
(2001) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.39-0442 · Cited by 1,200 · see citing works
Variability of worked examples and transfer of geometrical problem-solving skills: A cognitive-load approach.
Paas, F. G. W. C., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (1994) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.86.1.122 · Cited by 1,198 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Interestingly, Retnowati et al. (2010) conducted a similar study and showed that groups could benefit more from learning from worked examples rather than problem solving.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Female teachers’ math anxiety affects girls’ math achievement
Beilock, S. L., Gunderson, E. A., Ramirez, G., & Levine, S. C. (2010) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0910967107 · Cited by 1,117 · see citing works
Memory and Metamemory Considerations in the Training of Human Beings
Bjork, R. A. (1994) · Metacognition · doi:10.7551/mitpress/4561.003.0011 · Cited by 1,084 · see citing works
Development of an instrument for measuring different types of cognitive load
Leppink, J., Paas, F., Van der Vleuten, C. P. M., Van Gog, T., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2013) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-013-0334-1 · Cited by 1,066 · cited 1× · see citing works
“In the most recent version of CLT (Kalyuga 2011; Sweller 2010; Sweller et al. 2011; see also Leppink et al. 2013; Leppink et al. 2014), only intrinsic and extraneous cognitive loads are distinguished.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Cognitive Load Theory: Instructional Implications of the Interaction between Information Structures and Cognitive Architecture
Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2004) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1023/b:truc.0000021806.17516.d0 · Cited by 1,054 · see citing works
Self-citation
Do indoor pollutants and thermal conditions in schools influence student performance? A critical review of the literature
Mendell, M. J., & Heath, G. A. (2005) · Indoor Air · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0668.2004.00320.x · Cited by 1,034 · see citing works
Instructional control of cognitive load in the training of complex cognitive tasks
Paas, F. G. W. C., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (1994) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/bf02213420 · Cited by 968 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Efficiency of Instructional Conditions: An Approach to Combine Mental Effort and Performance Measures
Paas, F. G. W. C., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (1993) · Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/001872089303500412 · Cited by 921 · see citing works
Self-citation
Disruption of short-term memory by unattended speech: Implications for the structure of working memory
Salamé, P., & Baddeley, A. D. (1982) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(82)90521-7 · Cited by 915 · see citing works
Environmental context-dependent memory: a review and meta-analysis
Smith, S. M., & Vela, E. (2001) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196157 · Cited by 900 · see citing works
Child development and the physical environment.
Evans, G. W. (2006) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190057 · Cited by 814 · see citing works
Blue or Red? Exploring the Effect of Color on Cognitive Task Performances
Mehta, R., & Zhu, R. (. (2009) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1169144 · Cited by 763 · see citing works
Cognitive Load Theory: How Many Types of Load Does It Really Need?
Kalyuga, S. (2011) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9150-7 · Cited by 725 · see citing works
Do Learners Really Know Best? Urban Legends in Education
Kirschner, P. A., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2013) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2013.804395 · Cited by 674 · see citing works
Emotional design in multimedia learning.
Um, E. R., Plass, J. L., Hayward, E. O., & Homer, B. D. (2011) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0026609 · Cited by 670 · see citing works
Spatial Distance and Mental Construal of Social Events
Fujita, K., Henderson, M. D., Eng, J., Yaacov Trope, B., & Liberman, N. (2006) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01698.x · Cited by 667 · see citing works
The influence of positive affect on the components of expectancy motivation.
Erez, A., & Isen, A. M. (2002) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.87.6.1055 · Cited by 642 · see citing works
Dynamical approaches to cognitive science
Beer, R. D. (2000) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(99)01440-0 · Cited by 639 · see citing works
The association between psychological distance and construal level: Evidence from an implicit association test.
Bar‐Anan, Y., Liberman, N., & Trope, Y. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.135.4.609 · Cited by 596 · see citing works
Emotional design in multimedia learning: Effects of shape and color on affect and learning
Plass, J. L., Heidig, S., Hayward, E. O., Homer, B. D., & Um, E. (2014) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.02.006 · Cited by 550 · cited 4× · see citing works
“With regard to the effect of emotional designs of learning materials on cognitive load, Um and colleagues (2012; see also Plass et al. 2013) found that the use of an esthetically appealing design in multimedia learning materials (e.g., use of a face-like pedagogical agent) led to positive emotions…”
BackgroundInfluential
A Cognitive Load Approach to Collaborative Learning: United Brains for Complex Tasks
Kirschner, F., Paas, F., & Kirschner, P. A. (2009) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-008-9095-2 · Cited by 547 · see citing works
Self-citation
A coherence effect in multimedia learning: The case for minimizing irrelevant sounds in the design of multimedia instructional messages.
Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2000) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.92.1.117 · Cited by 530 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The seductive details or coherence effect (Moreno and Mayer 2000; Plass et al. 2013; Rey 2012; Um et al. 2012; for a review, see Rey 2014), for example, refers to the interference from adjuncts that are not essential to achieve the learning goal, but nonetheless, these adjuncts (e.g., music,…”
Background
Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load
Leppink, J., Paas, F., van Gog, T., van der Vleuten, C. P. M., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2014) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.12.001 · Cited by 520 · see citing works
Self-citation
An Evolutionary Upgrade of Cognitive Load Theory: Using the Human Motor System and Collaboration to Support the Learning of Complex Cognitive Tasks
Paas, F., & Sweller, J. (2012) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-011-9179-2 · Cited by 502 · see citing works
Self-citation
Significance of posture and position in the communication of attitude and status relationships.
Mehrabian, A. (1969) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0027349 · Cited by 483 · see citing works
Children’s Environments
Zimring, C., & Barnes, R. D. (1987) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-5227-3_14 · Cited by 465 · see citing works
The walls speak: the interplay of quality facilities, school climate, and student achievement
Uline, C., & Tschannen‐Moran, M. (2008) · Journal of Educational Administration · doi:10.1108/09578230810849817 · Cited by 420 · see citing works
A motivational perspective on the relation between mental effort and performance: Optimizing learner involvement in instruction
Paas, F., Tuovinen, J. E., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Aubteen Darabi, A. (2005) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02504795 · Cited by 401 · see citing works
Self-citation
Enclothed cognition
Adam, H., & Galinsky, A. D. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.02.008 · Cited by 396 · see citing works
Averting the gaze disengages the environment and facilitates remembering
Glenberg, A. M., Schroeder, J. L., & Robertson, D. A. (1998) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03211385 · Cited by 389 · see citing works
Learning and Instruction
von Tetzchner, S. (2018) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315742113-15 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
Effects of thermal discomfort in an office on perceived air quality, SBS symptoms, physiological responses, and human performance
Lan, L., Wargocki, P. L., Wyon, D. P., & Lian, Z. (2011) · Indoor Air · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0668.2011.00714.x · Cited by 368 · see citing works
The Potential Role of the Physical Environment in Fostering Creativity
McCoy, J. M., & Evans, G. W. (2002) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1207/s15326934crj1434_11 · Cited by 348 · see citing works
Is Noise Always Bad? Exploring the Effects of Ambient Noise on Creative Cognition
Mehta, R., Zhu, R. (., & Cheema, A. (2012) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/665048 · Cited by 340 · see citing works
The Physical Environment of the School: A Review of the Research
Weinstein, C. S. (1979) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543049004577 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
An Evolutionarily Informed Education Science
GEARY, D. C. (2008) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520802392133 · Cited by 324 · see citing works
A review of research and a meta-analysis of the seductive detail effect
Rey, G. D. (2012) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2012.05.003 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
The Impact of School Environments: A literature review
Higgins, S., Hall, E., Wall, K., Woolner, P., & McCaughey, C. (2005) · Durham Research Online (Durham University) · doi:10.25405/ncl.34087572 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Emotion, cognitive load and learning outcomes during simulation training
Fraser, K. L., Ma, I. W. Y., Teteris, E., Baxter, H., Wright, B. J., & McLaughlin, K. (2012) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.2012.04355.x · Cited by 312 · see citing works
Cognitive demand and blood glucose
Scholey, A. B., Harper, S., & Kennedy, D. O. (2001) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0031-9384(01)00476-0 · Cited by 300 · see citing works
When does context influence recognition memory?
Godden, D., & Baddeley, A. (1980) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1980.tb02735.x · Cited by 296 · see citing works
The Influence of Ceiling Height: The Effect of Priming on the Type of Processing That People Use
Meyers‐Levy, J., & Zhu, R. (2007) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/519146 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Gaze aversion: A response to cognitive or social difficulty?
Doherty‐Sneddon, G., & Phelps, F. G. (2005) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03195338 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
Effects of Test Anxiety and Evaluative Threat on Students' Achievement and Motivation
Hancock, D. R. (2001) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220670109598764 · Cited by 270 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Hancock (2001) found that students performed poorly and were less motivated when exposed to highly evaluative classrooms and that this effect was more pronounced for testanxious students.”
Background
Place and Space in the Design of New Learning Environments
Jamieson, P., Fisher, K., Gilding, T., Taylor, P., & Trevitt, C. (2000) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/072943600445664 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Effects of Indoor Lighting, Gender, and Age on Mood and Cognitive Performance
Knez, I., & Kers, C. (2000) · Environment and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0013916500326005 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Strategies for Programming Instruction in High School: Program Completion vs. Program Generation
van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (1990) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/4nk5-17l7-twqv-1ehl · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Effects of process-oriented worked examples on troubleshooting transfer performance
van Gog, T., PAAS, F. G. W. C., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2006) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.02.003 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Self-citation
Development of gaze aversion as disengagement from visual information.
Doherty-Sneddon, G., Bruce, V., Bonner, L., et al. (2002) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.38.3.438 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Motivational consequences of environmental stress
Evans, G., & Stecker, R. (2004) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0272-4944(03)00076-8 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Task complexity as a driver for collaborative learning efficiency: The collective working-memory effect
Kirschner, F., Paas, F., & Kirschner, P. A. (2011) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1730 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Self-citation
Physiological, motivational, and cognitive effects of aircraft noise on children: Moving from the laboratory to the field.
Cohen, S., Evans, G. W., Krantz, D. S., & Stokols, D. (1980) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.35.3.231 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Effects of noise, heat and indoor lighting on cognitive performance and self-reported affect
HYGGE, S., & KNEZ, I. (2001) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1006/jevp.2001.0222 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Strategies for Computer-Based Programming Instruction: Program Completion vs. Program Generation
Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & De Croock, M. B. M. (1992) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/mjdx-9pp4-kfmt-09pm · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Self-citation
Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency
Van Gerven, P. W. M., Paas, F. G. W. C., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Schmidt, H. G. (2002) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/s0959-4752(01)00017-2 · Cited by 205 · cited 15× · see citing works
“With regard to the worked example effect (Paas and Van Merriënboer 1994b; Van Gerven et al. 2002), which refers to the finding that novice students learn less from solving conventional problems than from studying equivalent worked out problem solutions, it would be interesting to study whether…”
MethodInfluentialSelf-citation
Physiological, motivational, and cognitive effects of aircraft noise on children: Moving from the laboratory to the field.
Cohen, S., Evans, G. W., Krantz, D. S., & Stokols, D. (1980) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.35.3.231 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Image segmentation and lightness perception
Anderson, B. L., & Winawer, J. A. (2005) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature03271 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Can the survival recall advantage be explained by basic memory processes?
Weinstein, Y., Bugg, J. M., & Roediger, H. L., III (2008) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/mc.36.5.913 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Adaptive memory: Ancestral priorities and the mnemonic value of survival processing
Nairne, J. S., & Pandeirada, J. N. S. (2010) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2010.01.005 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
The influence of school architecture on academic achievement
Tanner, C. K. (2000) · Journal of Educational Administration · doi:10.1108/09578230010373598 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Heart Rate and Oxygen Consumption during Mental Arithmetic, a Video Game, and Graded Exercise: Further Evidence of Metabolically‐Exaggerated Cardiac Adjustments?
Turner, J. R., & Carroll, D. (1985) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1985.tb01597.x · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Lessons from a Faraway land: The effect of spatial distance on creative cognition
Jia, L., Hirt, E. R., & Karpen, S. C. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.05.015 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Differential effects of problem-solving demands on individual and collaborative learning outcomes
Kirschner, F., PAAS, F. G. W. C., Kirschner, P. A., & Janssen, J. J. H. M. (2011) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.01.001 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Self-citation
Non-auditory Effects of Noise on Children: A Critical Review
Evans, G. W., & Lepore, S. J. (1993) · Children Youth and Environments · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Cognitive Performance, Hyperoxia, and Heart Rate Following Oxygen Administration in Healthy Young Adults
Scholey, A. B., Moss, M. C., Neave, N., & Wesnes, K. A. (1999) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0031-9384(99)00183-3 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Adaptive memory: Survival processing increases both true and false memory in adults and children.
Otgaar, H., & Smeets, T. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0019402 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Phonological factors in STM: Similarity and the unattended speech effect
Salamé, P., & Baddeley, A. (1986) · Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society · doi:10.3758/bf03330135 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Experimental Psychology, a Manual of Laboratory Practice.
Sanford, E. C., & Titchener, E. B. (1906) · The Philosophical Review · doi:10.2307/2177896 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Eyeclosure helps memory by reducing cognitive load and enhancing visualisation
Vredeveldt, A., Hitch, G. J., & Baddeley, A. (2011) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-011-0098-8 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Educational Implications of Expertise Reversal Effects in Learning and Performance of Complex Cognitive and Sensorimotor Skills
Kalyuga, S., Rikers, R. M. J. P., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2012) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-012-9195-x · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Self-citation
Effects of classroom seating arrangements on children’s question-asking
Marx, A., Fuhrer, U., & Hartig, T. (1999) · Learning Environments Research · doi:10.1023/a:1009901922191 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Cognitive Load Theory: New Directions and Challenges
Ayres, P., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2012) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2882 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Self-citation
Cognitive Function at High Altitude
Kramer, A. F., Coyne, J., & Strayer, D. L. (1993) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/001872089303500208 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Explaining Relationships Among Student Outcomes and the School's Physical Environment
Tanner, C. K. (2008) · Journal of Advanced Academics · doi:10.4219/jaa-2008-812 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Effects of Office Lighting on Mood and Cognitive Performance And A Gender Effect in Work-xRelated Judgment
Knez, I., & Enmarker, I. (1998) · Environment and Behavior · doi:10.1177/001391659803000408 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Bisphenol A in relation to behavior and learning of school‐age children
Hong, S., Hong, Y., Kim, J., Park, E. J., Shin, M., Kim, B., Yoo, H., Cho, I., Bhang, S., & Cho, S.-C. (2013) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12050 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Irrelevant speech and indoor lighting: effects on cognitive performance and self‐reported affect
Knez, I., & Hygge, S. (2002) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.829 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Instructional compensation for age-related cognitive declines: Effects of goal specificity in maze learning.
Paas, F., Camp, G., & Rikers, R. (2001) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.93.1.181 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Self-citation
Worked example effects in individual and group work settings
Retnowati, E., Ayres, P., & Sweller, J. (2010) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443411003659960 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Why goal-free problems can facilitate learning
Ayres, P. L. (1993) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1006/ceps.1993.1027 · Cited by 77 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Most of the early cognitive load research focused exclusively on task characteristics and resulted in CLTeffects such as the goal-free effect (e.g., Ayres 1993; Sweller 1988), the worked example effect (e.g., Paas and Van Merriënboer 1994b; Sweller 1988), the completion effect (e.g., Paas 1992; Van…”
Background
Teacher-centered versus student-centered mode of college classroom instruction as related to manifest anxiety.
Dowaliby, F. J., & Schumer, H. (1973) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0034590 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Seductive details and attention distraction – An eye tracker experiment
Rey, G. D. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.11.017 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Classroom Ecology
Sommer, R. (1967) · The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science · doi:10.1177/002188636700300404 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Modality and variability as factors in training the elderly
Gerven, P. W. M. V., PAAS, F. G. W. C., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Schmidt, H. G. (2006) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1247 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Self-citation
Educational issues, school settings, and environmental psychology
Rivlin, L. G., & Weinstein, C. S. (1984) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0272-4944(84)80005-5 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Instructional Implications of David C. Geary's Evolutionary Educational Psychology
Sweller, J. (2008) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520802392208 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Classroom seating location and its effect on course achievement, participation, and attitudes
Montello, D. R. (1988) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0272-4944(88)80005-7 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Physical and social distancing in teacher-pupil relationships.
Schwebel, A. I., & Cherlin, D. L. (1972) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0034081 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
The School as a Social Situation
Gump, P. V. (1980) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.31.020180.003005 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Remembering intentions: testing a new method of investigation
Kvavilashvili, L. (1998) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-0720(1998120)12:6 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
The irrelevant speech effect: a PET study
Gisselgård, J., Petersson, K. M., Baddeley, A., & Ingvar, M. (2003) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(03)00122-2 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
The irrelevant speech effect and working memory load
Gisselgård, J., Petersson, K. M., & Ingvar, M. (2004) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.02.031 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
PREFERRED CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT AND APPROACH TO LEARNING
Hattie, J., & WATKINS, D. (1988) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1988.tb00910.x · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Exploration and Adjustment in High School Classrooms: A Study of Person-Environment Fit
Nielsen, H. D., & Moos, R. H. (1978) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.1978.10885119 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
The Impact of Persistent Pain on Working Memory and Learning
Smith, A. K., & Ayres, P. (2013) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-013-9247-x · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self‐monitoring as a mediator of person‐environment fit: an investigation of Hong Kong mathematics classroom environments
Wong, N., & Watkins, D. (1996) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1996.tb01191.x · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Odor as a contextual cue in memory reactivation in young infants
Suss, C., Gaylord, S., & Fagen, J. W. (2012) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2012.05.004 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Flavor-intensity perception: Effects of stimulus context
Marks, L. E., Shepard, T. G., Burger, K., & Chakwin, E. M. (2011) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.08.039 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Death of a Manikin: Adverse Effects on Learning and Mechanisms
Fraser, K. L., Huffman, J., Ma, I. W. Y., et al. (2011) · CHEST Journal · doi:10.1378/chest.1112887 · Cited by 4 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

Sorted by citations

Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later
Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (2019) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-019-09465-5 · Cited by 2,337 · see citing works
Self-citation
Understanding Cognitive Load in Digital and Online Learning: a New Perspective on Extraneous Cognitive Load
Skulmowski, A., & Xu, K. M. (2022) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-021-09624-7 · Cited by 678 · see citing works
Cognitive load and performance in immersive virtual reality versus conventional virtual reality simulation training of laparoscopic surgery: a randomized trial
Frederiksen, J. G., Sørensen, S. M. D., Konge, L., Svendsen, M. B. S., Nobel-Jørgensen, M., Bjerrum, F., & Andersen, S. A. W. (2020) · Surgical Endoscopy · doi:10.1007/s00464-019-06887-8 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
From Theory to Practice: The Application of Cognitive Load Theory to the Practice of Medicine
Szulewski, A., Howes, D., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Sweller, J. (2021) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0000000000003524 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
The worked example effect, the generation effect, and element interactivity.
Chen, O., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2015) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000018 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Differentiating Different Types of Cognitive Load: a Comparison of Different Measures
Korbach, A., Brünken, R., & Park, B. (2018) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-017-9404-8 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Where to Hide a Stolen Elephant: Leaps in Creative Writing with Multimodal Machine Intelligence
Singh, N., Bernal, G., Savchenko, D., & Glassman, E. L. (2023) · ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction · doi:10.1145/3511599 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Measurement of cognitive load in multimedia learning: a comparison of different objective measures
Korbach, A., Brünken, R., & Park, B. (2017) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-017-9413-5 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Cognitive Load Theory in Computing Education Research: A Review
Duran, R., Zavgorodniaia, A., & Sorva, J. (2022) · ACM Transactions on Computing Education · doi:10.1145/3483843 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Effect of multitasking, physical environment and electroencephalography use on cognitive load and retention
Örün, Ö., & Akbulut, Y. (2019) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.11.027 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Attentional Effort of Beginning Mindfulness Training Is Offset With Practice Directed Toward Images of Natural Scenery
Lymeus, F., Lundgren, T., & Hartig, T. (2017) · Environment and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0013916516657390 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Benefits of guided self-management of attention on learning accounting.
Sithole, S. T. M., Chandler, P., Abeysekera, I., & Paas, F. (2017) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000127 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citation
Towards an Analysis of Program Complexity From a Cognitive Perspective
Duran, R., Sorva, J., & Leite, S. (2018) · Proceedings of the 2018 ACM Conference on International Computing Education Research · doi:10.1145/3230977.3230986 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Effects of Neuro-Cognitive Load on Learning Transfer Using a Virtual Reality-Based Driving System
Abdurrahman, U. A., Yeh, S.-C., Wong, Y., & Wei, L. (2021) · Big Data and Cognitive Computing · doi:10.3390/bdcc5040054 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Exploring the factors influencing college students’ learning satisfaction in generative AI-supported MOOCs learning environment: a learning experience framework perspective
Lv, P., Wang, X., Nie, Y., Wu, R., & Wang, L. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1633686 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…aligns with previous research on MOOC platforms: user-friendly learning platforms, appropriately designed courses, and well-structured activities all facilitate sustained student engagement, thereby reducing dropout rates and yielding better LO (Choi et al., 2014; Molinillo et al., 2018).”
Sources of perceived stress in people with aphasia: a qualitative study
Jewell, C. C., Bergeron, K., Hunting Pompon, R., Pasque, P. A., & Harnish, S. M. (2026) · Aphasiology · doi:10.1080/02687038.2026.2646450 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Chronic stress has also been linked to lower educational attainment, limited access to essential resources (e.g., medical care, food), and inadequate social support (Allen et al., 2014; Choi et al., 2014; Urimubenshi & Rhoda, 2011).”

Authors: Choi, H.-H., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F.
Affiliations: Erasmus University Rotterdam (NL)
University of Wollongong (AU)
Corresponding author: Choi, Hwan-Hee
ORCID: Paas, Fred
Venue: Educational Psychology Review
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2014-04-03
Volume: 26
Issue: 2
Pages: 225-244
ISSN: 1040-726X (ISSN-L)
1573-336X
DOI: 10.1007/s10648-014-9262-6
OpenAlex: W2084653151
Cited by: 413
References: 126
Citations by year: 2026: 32 · 2025: 45 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 47 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 5
FWCI: 25.97
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
cris.maastrichtuniversity.nl
Licence: other-oa
www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations: Educational Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
Research Publications (Maastricht University) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (publishedVersion)
Research Online (University of Wollongong) (submittedVersion)
EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion)
Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
Social Sciences › Education › Educational Environments and Student Outcomes
Keywords: cognitive load, physical learning environment, cognitive load theory, teaching effectiveness, learner characteristics

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Effects of the Physical Environment on Cognitive Load and Learning: Towards a New Model of Cognitive Load

Integrity signals

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Cites

Cited by

Related

Record

About these checks