Category Interference in Translation and Picture Naming: Evidence for Asymmetric Connections Between Bilingual Memory Representations

“A common finding is that of processing asymmetry, in which the first language tends to dominate the second (e.g., Kroll & Stewart, 1994 ).”

“N.K.’s data on the other hand, show that a noun–verb dissociation can be found across typologically dissimilar languages such as English and Arabic.”

“This is what is called the “Word Association Model” by Kroll and Stewart (1994), and most recently “the first language (L1) lemma mediation stage” by Nan Jiang (2000, p.47).”

“Language dominance is assumed to bias activation in favour of one language or another, depending upon relative fluency and context (e.g. Kroll and Stewart, 1994; Altarriba and Mathis, 1997).”

“…with respect to language (e.g., Dijkstra, van Jaarsveld, & ten Brinke, 1998; van Hell & Dijkstra, 2002), or whether processing from the native language into the second language differs from that in the other direction (e.g., Kroll & Stewart, 1994; de Groot, Dannenburg, & van Hell, 1994).”

“One explanation for the facilitative effects of gesturing on perceived emotional salience might stem from weaker links between lexical items and concepts in L2 lexicon (de Groot, 1992), particularly for abstract words (Kroll & Stewart, 1994; van Hell & de Groot, 1998).”

“…activates cat in English, as well as perro and gato in Spanish) (Bialystok et al., 2009; Colomé, 2001; Costa et al., 2000; Kroll et al., 2006), a phenomenon which is modulated by relative proficiency in each language (Dijkstra & van Heuven, 1998, 2002; Dijkstra et al., 2019; Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“Although the lexical link from L2 to L1 is solid from the initial stages of acquisition, the strength of the lexical connection from L1 to L2 increases with the advancement of L2 proficiency (Kroll et al., 2002; Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“Another alternative is a model that combines the main features of the BIA model with a developmental aspect of second language acquisition, argued by Kroll and Stewart (1994), and it is known as the developmental BIA-model (BIA-d; Grainger et al., 2010).”

“Slower L2–L1 translation may be surprising to those who are familiar with the traditional translation literature and the Revised Hierarchical Model of bilingualism which posits that L2–L1 translation is faster than L1–L2 translation (see Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“In addition, nonnative listeners’ L2 semantic and linguistic processes may not be completely differentiated from their L1 semantic and syntactic processes (Kroll & Steward, 1994).”

“Previous studies have suggested that, as a consequence of the initial reliance on L1 words, lexical links are stronger from L2 to L1 (than from L1 to L2) and consequently greater priming effects can be expected in L1-L2 word pairs than in L2-L1 ones (Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“The Revised Hierarchical Model is a model of bilingual word production that focuses on the connections between L1 and L2 words at the lexical and conceptual levels and how these connections develop as proficiency increases (Kroll and Stewart, 1994; Kroll and Dijkstra, 2002; Kroll et al., 2010).”

“…activity is on) since inclusion of this mechanism would lead to symmetrical synapses (as in traditional autoassociative nets, like the Hopfield model; Hopfield, 1984), whereas we wish to obtain an asymmetrical pattern of synapses as in the revised hierarchical model (Kroll et al., 1994).”

“…interference paradigm (e.g., Hantsch et al., 2005; Kuipers et al., 2006), and the semantic blocking and cumulative semantic effects in the bare picture naming paradigm (e.g., Kroll and Stewart, 1994; Belke et al., 2005; Damian and Als, 2005; Howard et al., 2006; Abdel Rahman and Melinger, 2007)4.”

“The relations between lexicons and semantics in bilingualism depend on variables such as age of acquisition and proficiency level of each language ( Kroll & Stewart, 1994 ).”

“The procedure followed was similar to that in Kroll and Stewart (1994), in which native English speakers were used to determine the cognate status of words.”

“Similar asymmetric semantic effects in translation tasks have been reported by Kroll and Stewart (1994) and Cheung and Chen (1998; see also Kroll & de Groot, 1997, and Kroll & Tokowicz, 2005, for reviews of evidence supporting the RHM).”

“Other researchers have studied interference effects between languages (Kroll and Stewart, 1994; Altarriba and Mathis, 1997) during lexical access, an issue not addressed here.”

“Models of bilingual lexical processing like the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll and Stewart, 1994) suggest that “L1 word forms are directly linked to meaning at the conceptual level, but that FL meaning is accessed via L1 word forms” (Kroll and Sunderman, 2003: 401).”

“Kroll and Stewart (1994), for example, proposed a model, the Revised Hierarchical Model (RHM).”

“Although the PP group used pictures to enable learners to make dual-channel input, the no-background pictures only allow learners to establish connections between L2 words and their translation, which excludes building connections between L2 form and concepts [32,75].”

“Multilink offers a comprehensive account of bilingual word recognition and production, incorporating some of the tenets of another prominent theory, the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll et al., 2010; Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“…shared in many models of bilingual language production, namely that languages compete for the selection of words and sounds in the minds of bilinguals (Kroll et al., 2006; Kroll & Stewart, 1994), we expect nonnative structures to “leak out” into the target language production, as we see here.”

“Translation speed has been used as a proxy for the strength of cross-language connections in prior studies (de Groot, 1992; Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“Broca’s area, in particular, has been reported to be active regardless of the direction of translation (L1-into-L2 and L2-into-L1) in a study focusing on translation from both directions (Quaresima et al., 2002).”

“Issues of L1–L2 co-activation are addressed in models of bilingual representations, including the BIA+ model (Dijkstra and Van Heuven, 2002), Multilink model (Dijkstra et al., 2019) and Revised Hierarchical Model (RHM; Kroll and Stewart, 1994; Kroll et al., 2010).”

“…languages (Van Hell & De Groot, 1998; Van Hell & Dijkstra, 2002), faster translation for cognates than for non-cognates (Christoffels et al., 2006; Kroll & Stewart, 1994), and ERPs suggesting that cognates behave as higher-frequency words (Strijkers, Costa & Thierry, 2010), with ERP components…”

“Factors that may influence cross-language transfer include the relative proficiency of treated vs untreated language: One theory of bilingual language processing, the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994), has been used to predict more transfer from the weaker to the stronger language (e.g., Edmonds & Kir…”

“These assumptions are either explicit or implicit in the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994), the Distributed Feature Model (Van Hell & de Groot, 1998), the Bilingual Interactive Activation Model (Dijkstra & Van Heuven, 2002), and the Inhibitory Control Model (Green, 1998).”

“According to the revised hierarchical model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994), translation priming effects should be stronger from L2 to L1 than from L1 to L2; however, this model was developed to explain connections between the L1 and L2 lexicons in bilingual adults who were proficient in L1 prior to…”

“The evidence that switch costs arise from within the bilingual lexicon supports theoretical models such as the concept-mediation model (Potter et al. 1984), word-association model (Potter et al. 1984), and Revised Hierarchical Model (RHM; Kroll et al. 2010; Kroll and Stewart 1994).”

“…(rather than presented intermixed) in the cyclic naming task (Belke, Meyer, & Damian, 2005; Damian & Als, 2005; Damian, Vigliocco, & Levelt, 2001; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Schnur, Schwartz, Brecher, & Hodgson, 2006; Vigliocco, Vinson, Damian, & Levelt, 2002) or when participants repeatedly name…”

“…or semantic layer (shared between languages for most concepts), a lexical layer (with distinct lexical representations for each of the languages) (Kroll & Stewart, 1994) and a phoneme layer (with a certain degree of overlap between the phonological systems of the languages depending upon how…”

“Effect of cognate status on L2 lexical access Bilingual lexical access involves parallel activation of words from both languages (e.g., Dijkstra, Grainger & Van Heuven, 1999; Gollan, Foster & Frost, 1997; Kroll & Stewart, 1994, Schwartz, Kroll & Diaz, 2007).”

“predicted by Kroll and Stewart’s (1994) Revised Hierarchical Model (RHM) can be understood by word association response”

“This model was further revised with asymmetry by Kroll & Stewart [19] (Fig.”

“The usual finding is that responses to pictures are slower in the blocked condition than in the mixed condition; however, for word naming such difference disappears (e.g., Damian, Vigliocco, & Levelt, 2001; Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“The IC model applications and tests Amplifying the revised hierarchical model Kroll and Stewart (1994) distinguished independent levels of representation for word form and meaning.”

“As shown in many psycholinguistic studies (for example, Kroll & Stewart 1994, Talamas et al. 1999, Menenit, 2006, Dimitropuolou et al. 2011), low-proficiency L2 speakers automatically translate L2 nouns they encounter into the L1 whenever there is a translation equivalent in L1.”

“…a semantic system with shared conceptual representations for words across languages while lexical representations are independent for each language (Kroll & Stewart, 1994) and (ii) activation propagating from the semantic to the lexical system in a language independent manner (Costa et al., 2006).”

“First, in the early stages of second language learning, students may rely more on their native language skills, increasing cross-language correlations in the early grades (Kroll and Stewart 1994; Kroll et al. 2010).”

“org specifically figures out “translation asymmetry” in translation activities, which means translating/interpreting a word into a second language requires more cognitive effort than undertaking this in the first language (Kroll and Stewart, 1994).”

“…& Marian, 2009a, 2009b; Kaushanskaya & Rechtzigel, 2012; Valente, Ferré, Soares, Rato & Comesaña, 2018; see the Revised Hierarchical Model, RHM by Kroll & Stewart, 1994 for underlying mechanisms); or, second, a more direct mapping of the novel word with its corresponding concept through the…”

“They interpret their finding within the Revised Hierarchical Model (RHM) of Kroll and Stewart (1990, 1994) and claim that the engagement of the L2-L1 route (as opposed to the route that links the words directly with the conceptual store) leads L2 speakers to more intensive lexical processing, which…”

“…for example the Competition Model of Bilingualism (MacWhinney, 2005), the Revised Hierarchical Model of Bilingualism (a “developmental” interpretation) (Dufour & Kroll, 1995; Kroll & Stewart, 1994), and the Developmental Bilingual Interactive-Activation Model (BIA-d) (Grainger et al., 2010).”

“…models (Tokowicz, 2015) that explain how bilingual speakers process and produce language in their first and additional languages (e.g., De Groot, Dannenburg, & Van Hell, 1994; Dijkstra & van Heuven, 2002; Finkbeiner, Forster, Nicol, & Nakamura, 2004; Kroll & Scholl, 1992; Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“What distinguishes the BIA-d model from the RHM model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994) is a fourth stage, where inhibitory connections are added between L1 and L2 forms after the L2 forms have established their own connections to the conceptual store.”

“Nevertheless, in relation to the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994), Kroll, van Hell, Tokowicz, and Green (2010, p. 374) wrote that ‘... the assumption of functional separation of the bilingual’s lexicons [...] may in fact better accommodate the wider range of evidence for parallel…”

“The debate is motivated by leading theories of sequential bilingualism, including the Revised Hierarchical Model (RHM; e.g., Kroll and Stewart, 1994; Kroll et al., 2010) and the Developmental Bilingual Interactive-Activation Model (BIA-d; Grainger et al., 2010), which posit that L2 processing…”

“…semantics for L1 and for fluent L2 speakers, while low-proficiency L2 speakers access semantic representations indirectly, i.e., by linking their L2 word representations via the proxy of the corresponding L1 representations (Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Kroll, Van Hell, Tokowicz & Green, 2010).”

“One of the most prominent models of dual language learning is the revised hierarchical model (RHM) by Kroll and Stewart (1994).”

“Integration of home language in the classroom is supported by prevailing linguistic theories that second language concepts are reinforced by connection to the native language (Cummins, 1981; Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“This effect is usually explained by lexical competition due to the semantic activation of the category members in the homogeneous context ([44,45,47]; but see [48]) and the basic pattern of data has been consistently replicated in a large number of studies (e.”

“…language learning has been shown to involve integration of novel and previous knowledge through associations between translation equivalents (e.g., Kroll and Stewart, 1994), blending of semantic content (De Groot, 1992), and both positive and negative transfer between overlapping and distinct…”

“These results could be explained in part by mental lexicon studies (e.g., Kroll & Stewart, 1994), which have reported that (mental) translation from an L2 to L1 was “lexically” mediated while only (mental) translation from L1 to L2 appears to be “conceptually” mediated.”

“…dominant L1 than in a less proficient L2, a finding that has been explained by the fact that concept-to-lemma links are stronger for L1 than for L2 (Kroll & Stewart, 1994; and more recently Kroll, Van Hell, Tokowicz, & Green, 2010), and which we expect to replicate in the singlelanguage naming…”

“…language and second language Research on the relationship between L1 and L2 knowledge has largely focused on how lexical information is shared between a bilingual’s two languages (e.g., Kroll and Stewart 1994, Jiang and Forster 2001, Dijkstra and Van Heuven 2002, Basnight-Brown and Altarriba 2007).”

“The SNR used in the memory task, was set at the individual SNR value corresponding to 50% correct identification minus 7 dB, which was shown by Murphy et al. (2000) to result in approximately 91% correct word identification when the words used in the memory experiments were presented in babble.”

“The blocked cyclic naming paradigm is a widely used paradigm to investigate word production under competition (e.g. Belke, Meyer, & Damian, 2005; Damian, Vigliocco, & Levelt, 2001; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Schnur et al., 2006, 2009).”

“This interpretation may be consistent with the Revised Hierarchical Model of L2 processing (Kroll and Stewart, 1994), which posits weak direct links between the L2 lexical system and the conceptual store during the early phases of L2 acquisition (but see Brysbaert and Duyck, 2010).”

“One of the most popular theories is the revised hierarchical model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994), which assumes dynamic relations between the shared conceptual representations and the two lexicons for bilinguals.”

“According to Talamas et al. (1999) and Sunderman and Kroll (2006), the existence of form-relative interference supports the Revised Hierarchical Model (RHM; Kroll and Stewart, 1994) of the bilingual and second language lexicon.”

“This question originates from a crucial assumption of Kroll and Stewart's revised hierarchical model (RHM; see Figure 1 , eg, Kroll & Stewart, 1994 ), which provides the literature's dominant view on bilingual lexicosemantic organization.”

“Similarly, there are a number of studies showing evidence for asymmetric priming in favor of L1 (e.g., Fox, 1996:360; Keatley, Spinks, & de Gelder, 1994; Kroll & Stewart, 1994:168).”

“The Revised Hierarchical Model The Revised Hierarchical Model (RHM; Kroll & Stewart, 1994 ) includes separate lexicons for a bilingual’s two languages, but also contains direct associative links between translation equivalents (see Figure 1.2 ).”

“A psycholinguistic model which has been important in emphasizing the interactions in development between lexical and conceptual representations in the bilingual lexicon is the Revised Hierarchical Model (RHM, Kroll & De Groot, 2005; Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”