Category Interference in Translation and Picture Naming: Evidence for Asymmetric Connections Between Bilingual Memory Representations

“, comparison of pseudowords with known words from L1) aiding the association between object and congruous pseudowords which supports mechanisms outlined by the Revised Hierarchical Model (RHM) [1].”

“Yamashita and Jiang (2010), for example, took their findings as support of the revised hierarchical model (RHM; Kroll & Stewart, 1994), which assumes a nonselective view of processing in the early stages of L2 learning whereby both languages are activated making it difficult to suppress one over…”

“Drawing on theoretical understandings of bilingual language acquisition (Bilson, et al., 2015; Cummins, 1979; Kroll & Stewart, 1994), we hypothesize that conceptually scored receptive and expressive measures will be positively associated with school-aged English learners’ academic English…”

“…Colomé, & Caramazza, 2000; de Groot, 1992; Dijkstra & van Hell, 2003; Dijkstra & van Heuven, 1998; Green, 1986; Kroll, Bobb, Misra, & Guo, 2008; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Kroll, Van Hell, Tokowicz, & Green, 2010), and the majority of these models have the potential to explain cognate…”

“The RHM model [32] would predict the activation of translations only for the low L2 proficiency bilinguals but not for the high proficient bilinguals, since the low proficient bilinguals need to translate the L2 words into L1 words for comprehension.”

“When semantically related trials were interspersed with unrelated trials, the related items were still named more slowly than unrelated items (e.g., Brown, 1981; Damian & Als, 2005; but see Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“For example, cognate facilitation effects have been consistently observed across a diversity of tasks and paradigms (Dijkstra, Grainger & Van Heuven, 1999; Gollan et al., 1997; Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“Responses are slower in blocks comprising semantic coordinates than in unrelated blocks (e.g., Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Schnur, Schwartz, Brecher, & Hodgson, 2006; for similar findings in other experimental settings see Bloem and La Heij (2003), Howard, Nickels, Coltheart, and pure visual shape…”

“Kroll and Stewart (1994) argued that this was evidence for asymmetrical links between the lexical stores and the conceptual store, and assumed that L1–L2 translation followed a route where the form of L1 word led to the retrieval of its meaning from the conceptual store, and then to the translation of that meaning by…”

“Some past studies of learners during early stages of L2 acquisition suggest that access to the L2, at both the level of the lexicon and grammar, is initially mediated through the L1 and that only with increasing L2 proficiency are learners able to use the L2 independently (e.g., Kroll & Stewart 1994; Talamas et al. 19…”

“Prominent models of the lexical architecture of bilinguals incorporate (mostly) shared semantic representations (e.g., Dijkstra et al., 2019; Kroll & Stewart, 1994), an integrated lexicon, and some means of classifying lexical representations by language membership (e.g., Dijkstra & van Heuven,…”

“Both the revised hierarchical model (RHM; Kroll & Stewart, 1994) and the BIA+ (Dijkstra & van Heuven, 2002) postulate that L2 words are directly connected to their L1 translation equivalents in less proficient bilinguals (Duyck & Warlop, 2009; Witzel & Forster, 2012), thus increasing the effect of…”

“…to explain how interactions between languages may influence processing (e.g. Bates and MacWhinney 1989; De Bot 1992; Dijkstra and Van Heuven 2002; Kroll and Stewart 1994; Potter et al. 1984; Shook and Marian 2013), as crosslinguistic transfer is the application of linguistic knowledge or…”

“…is already much information available about bidirectional influences of L1 and L2 in the bilingual's reading, spoken word recognition and speech production (e.g., Duyck & De Houwer, 2008; Green, 1998; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Lagrou, Hartsuiker & Duyck, 2011; van Heuven, Dijkstra & Grainger, 1998).”

“Lee and Macaro explained such a positive association with the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994), and proposed that children’s existing lexical concept representations in Korean would gradually link to their lexical representations in English with the assistance of intra-sentential CS, and that the lin…”

“…share semantics only, and clangs which share phonology but not semantics (De Groot, 1992, 1993; Sánchez-Casas et al., 1992; Ellis and Beaton, 1993; Kroll and Stewart, 1994; De Frontiers in Human Neuroscience | www.frontiersin.org 3 October 2015 | Volume 9 | Article 587 Groot and Keijzer, 2000;…”

“In addition, directional differences obtained between priming in the cross-language conditions are consistent with the asymmetrical lexical connections posited by the RHM. SN’s results from the cognate repetition priming experiment suggest that representation and processing of cognates and noncognates is complex.”

“A further important supported by analysis of bilingual subjects (Potter et al., 1984; Kroll and Stewart, 1994; McRae et al., 1997) who exhibit a common semantic representation but distinct lexical items.”

“Interestingly, one more strength of the Kroll and Stewart (1994) article was the introduction of the semantic blocking paradigm to investigate semantic mediation in stimulus naming and translation: 25 articles referred to this aspect.”

“... thewordtranslationtask;semanticeffectshavebeenreportedinthewordtranslationtask(the SFE),butnotinthepicture-pictureinterferencetask.Assumingthattheprocessesinvolvedin backward word translation (from L2 to L1) should be sensitive to the same variables as those involved in picture naming in the sense that both tasks…”

“In previous studies (e.g., de Groot, 1992; de Groot, Dannenburg, & van Hell, 1994; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Sholl, Sankaranarayanan, & Kroll, 1995; Chen, Cheung & Lau, 1997; Cheung & Chen, 1998), the stream of activations for lexical items from the first language (L1) to the second language (L2)…”

“…translating words is slower when the pictures/words are grouped together in the same semantic category vs. grouped in different categories (e.g., Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Campanella & Shallice, 2011), this suggests that translation tasks capture access to conceptual representations in a similar…”

“Some models of bilingualism (e.g., the revised hierarchical model of Kroll and colleagues, e.g., Kroll & Stewart, 1994) assume that L2 word forms do not have direct access to semantics, but only indirectly activate their meaning through their L1 translation equivalents (except in very high levels…”

“For consistency, we also use these terms to refer to L1 and L2 as used by other authors (Christoffels et al., 2016, Dylman & Barry, 2018, and Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“In terms of the bilingual lexicon models, the current study does not support the prediction of Kroll and Stewart’s (1994) Revised Hierarchical Model that the behavioral responses of L2 words vary across different levels of language proficiency.”

“It is accepted that in the bilingual mind both languages are co-active (e.g., Costa & Caramazza, 1999; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Morford, Wilkinson, Villwock, Piñar & Kroll, 2011; Meuter & Allport, 1999; Thierry & Wu, 2007).”

“One interpretation of this finding has been in terms of the revised hierarchical model of the bilingual mental lexicon (Kroll & Stewart, 1994), according to which bilinguals translating an L1 word are thought to first consult the conceptual store to retrieve the L1 word form that shares the same…”

“According to the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994), with increasing proficiency, the L1 lexicon decreasingly mediates the L2.”

“According to the Revised Hierarchical Model proposed by Kroll and Stewart (1994), in early stages of L2 word learning, new L2 words are understood or learned mostly through lexical-level translation connections to first language words rather than through underlying concepts.”

“…have shown that words in L1 and L2 are stored in separate lexical memory systems (Keatley et al., 1994), while others suggested the existence of one combined lexico-semantic store that is similar to that in monolinguals (Dijkstra and van Heuven, 2002; Green, 1998; Kroll and Stewart, 1994).”

“…when it comes to performance of language-dependent tasks including word retrieval (e.g. Bialystok, Craik, and Luk 2008; Fernandes et al. 2007; Kroll and Stewart 1994), semantic fluency (e.g. Gollan, Montoya, and Werner 2002), and syntactic processing (e.g. Hahne 2001; Juffs and Harrington…”

“Subjects take longer to name pictures when grouped in semantically related versus unrelated condition (e.g., Damian, Vigliocco, & Levelt, 2001; Kroll & Stewart, 1994) and evidence suggests that this interference occurs at a lexical, not semantic level (e.g., Belke, 2013; Damian et al., 2001).”

“One classical model, the revised hierarchical model (RHM; Kroll & Stewart, 1994), has posited a shared conceptual system between a bilingual individual ’ s first language (L1) and L2.”

“Specifically, the method of FL words presented alongside images representing their meanings outperforms that of the presentation of FL words with translations in the L1 when behavioral measures are collected in single-word tasks [1–3, 8, 10, 21]”

“According to the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll and Stewart, 1994), unbalanced bilinguals rely on L1 words to access semantic information in their L2 (Diehr, 2018; Jared et al., 2013; Pavlenko, 2009).”

“The previously mentioned bilingual lexicon models by Kroll and Stewart (1994) and Jiang (2000), in addition to hypothesizing how the L1 and the L2 interact, also provided predictions on how the L1-L2 interaction develops as the L2 learner progresses.”

“As we noted in Section I, the forward translation compared to the backward translation involves more semantic processing which increases the cognitive load of the task especially in early stages of foreign language learning (e.g. Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“Within the bilingual language processing research, the greater false memories in the dominant than non-dominant language (e.g., Sahlin et al., 2005) could be accommodated by the RHM (e.g., Kroll and Stewart, 1994) since this model proposes stronger conceptual links in L1 than in L2.”

“Moreover, the Revised Hierarchical Model suggests that connections between the L1 lexicon and the conceptual system were stronger than those between the L2 lexicon and the conceptual system (Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“On the other hand, studies that show evidence for the weaker-links hypothesis (Gollan et al., 2008; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Starreveld et al., 2014) claim that earlier processes of speech production are delayed.”

“The RHM of bilingual lexical processing is based upon observations that L1 forms are produced faster than their L2 equivalents and that L2 forms are susceptible to semantic interference from blocking of stimuli, while L1 words are resilient to it (Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“Studies have shown that bilinguals have separate lexical representations for each language and share the same semantic representations [20].”

“Since studies with bilingual adults (Kroll & Stewart, 1994) and children (Bialystok, 1999) have revealed that the cognitive and linguistic consequences of bilingualism are more salient for those bilinguals who are relatively balanced in their proficiency, the main hypothesis of the present study is…”

“Other models of bilingual language processing assume that bilinguals store words from each language in separate lexicons (e.g., Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Paivio & Desrochers, 1980; Pavlenko, 2009).”

“In another paradigm, where picture stimuli are not differentiated into primes and targets but are regarded as a series of consecutive targets, naming times are delayed when the category members are blocked, as compared to mixed across categories (eg, Damian & Als, 2005 ; Kroll & Stewart, 1994 ), and also delayed when…”

“These findings suggest that the two languages in bilingual lexicon are connected with each other (Kroll & Stewart, 1994; see also Figure 1).”

“…that links between a bilingual’s words and concepts may be asymmetrical (i.e. some links between the two lexicons or conceptual storage are stronger or weaker than others) and the differences in proficiency (post stroke) could be the cause of directional differences (see Kroll and Stewart, 1994).”

“…picture naming with translation, and the study examining word naming in deaf BSL signers were all conducted with alphabetic languages in which processes of conversion from grapheme to phoneme are activated (Comesaña, et al., 2009; Ferré et al., 2006; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Vinson et al., 2010).”