Category Interference in Translation and Picture Naming: Evidence for Asymmetric Connections Between Bilingual Memory Representations

“…bilingual lexical representation and processing, for example, the bilingual interactive activation model (Dijkstra & Van Heuven, 2002), the inhibitory control model (Green, 1998), the revised hierarchical model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994), and the distributed features model (Van Hell & de Groot, 1998).”

“…& Wodniecka, 2006; Kroll, Dijkstra, Janssen & Schriefers, 2000), whereas interference was interpreted as dual activation with impeded selection, due to (temporarily) unresolved competition between L1 and L2 representations (Costa et al., 1999; Green, 1998; Hermans, 2004; Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“Prominent models of adult bilingual language organization posit differential effects of language dominance on processing (e.g., Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“The notion that changes in perception in older adults may cause changes in cognition has been supported by a number of studies, which found that perceptual and cognitive processes tend to be highly correlated in older adults (Lindenberger and Baltes, 1994; Baltes and Lindenberger, 1997).”

“, as in the RHMmodel of Kroll and Stewart, 1994). According to this view N400s to new L2 items should not necessarily differ from those recorded to their L1 translation equivalents, although there might be a delay in the time course of the N400 due to the extra step of L2 to L1 lexical mapping. Alternatively, N400s to…”

“And if so, to what extent is this cross-linguistic activation modulated by context?”

“A later study produced more complex findings (Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“From theoretical accounts of the bilingual lexicon (Kroll and Stewart, 1994) it can be deduced that lexical access is similar to lexical retrieval but not identical as the process develops in a diŒerent direction; from form to meaning (lexical access) instead of from meaning to form (lexical retrieval).”

“Kroll and Stewart (1994) propose the revised hierarchical model that combines the two ideas.”

“The revised hierarchical model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994) posits that first language (L1) and L2 word forms are associated with a common conceptual system.”

“As bilinguals may house overlapping representations for words across their languages (Dijkstra & van Heuven, 2002; Kroll & Stewart, 1994), cognate words that share similar orthographic or phonological form have been shown to have facilitatory effects in processing (e.g., Gollan et al., 2007; Kelley…”

“According to the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Kroll, van Hell, Tokowicz & Green, 2010), lexical access to the L2 proceeds through mediation via its L1 translation equivalent until the individual has gathered enough skill in their L2 to directly access meaning.”

“…comparing L1 to L2 naming is a speed difference; naming in the L2 has repeatedly been shown to be slower than naming in the L1 (e.g., experiment 3, Kroll and Stewart, 1994; La Heij et al., 1996; Van Wijnendaele and Brysbaert, 2002), even for fluent, (nearly) balanced bilinguals (Potter et al.,…”

“…repeated access to a semantic category strengthens the connections between the lexical concepts that are being retrieved and their shared conceptual features, which results in the durable accumulation of activation within the conceptual level (Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Belke, Meyer, & Damian, 2005).”

“Mediating lexical links and direct conceptual links (ALTARRIBA; MATHIS, 1997; KROLL; STEWART, 1994) are other terms for compound and subordinate configurations in the lexicon.”

“Libben et al. (2003) investigated constituent activation of the four types of compounds (TT, OT, TO, and OO).”

“J oh n B en ja m in s Pu bl is hi ng C om pa ny translation from L2 to L1 to determine the semantic information of an L2 word (Kroll & Stewart 1994).”

“These differential access patterns produce modular translation processes; the translation process from L1 to L2 is different from the L2 to L1 translation process (Kroll & Sholl, 1992; Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“Such research has led to the Revised Hierarchical Model, which proposes that the native and second languages share semantic representations but have distinct orthographic and phonological representations (Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Kroll & Tokowicz, 2005).”

“This is supported by the RHM which suggests that a strong lexical connection, which requires semantic processing, is established when FL is translated to L1, and hence reinforces semantic connections between FL words and the semantic system (Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“In its semantic form, this task is commonly used to explore lexical-semantic retrieval (Abdel Rahman & Melinger, 2007; Aristei, Melinger, & Abdel Rahman, 2011; Damian, Vigliocco, & Levelt, 2001; Kroll & Stewart 1994).”

“That is, words from all languages are simultaneously active, to some degree, in comprehension and production (e.g., de Groot, Delmaar, & Lupker, 2000; Dijkstra, Grainger, & van Heuven, 1999; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; van Heuven, Schriefers, Dijkstra, & Hagoort, 2008).”

“Furthermore, event-related potential (ERP) studies suggest that extra strategic control is required when processing clangs, given that inhibition of the non-target semantic representation is required (Elston-Guttler, Paulmann & Kotz, 2005; Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“It must be underlined that, while naming latencies in the homogeneous condition, when compared to blocks in the heterogeneous condition, are generally longer (Damian et al., 2001; Levelt et al., 1999; Kroll and Stewart, 1994), in the present study the functional alterations do not appear to be due to the overall diffi…”

“…to control words (e.g., De Groot & Nas, 1991; Dijkstra, Grainger, & Van Heuven, 1999; Dijkstra, Van Jaarsveld, & Ten Brinke, 1998; Dijkstra et al., 2010; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Lemhöfer et al., 2008; Sanchez-Casas, Davis, & Garcia-Albea, 1992; Schwartz, Kroll, & Diaz, 2007; Voga & Grainger, 2007).”

“Bilinguals are further affected by features specific to multilingual experience, like age of second language acquisition, relative proficiency in the two languages, and language dominance (Bates, Devescovi & Wulfeck, 2001; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Marian, 2008).”

“Kroll and Stewart (1994) combined the two models and proposed the revised hierarchical model (RHM), which has become one of the most cited models in bilingualism research.”

“…competitor priming in which objects to be named are preceded by naming to definition of related or unrelated items (Wheeldon and Monsell, 1994) and semantic blocking in which objects to be named are blocked within category, compared to items blocked between category (Kroll and Stewart, 1994).”

“The interfering effect of semantically related words during picture naming fits with results from other experimental paradigms demonstrating semantic competition during picture naming (e.g., Damian, Vigliocco, & Levelt, 2001; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Vitkovitch & Humphreys, 1991; Wheeldon & Monsell, 1994).”

“This finding can also be explained by the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994), which assumes a stronger link between the conceptual system and lexical system of L1 than between the conceptual system and lexical system of L2.”

“As the two languages of a bilingual may share a conceptual store (Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Kroll et al., 2010), transfer effects in the domain of vocabulary could indeed be expected, as vocabulary items consist of mappings between phonological forms and conceptual representations.”

“…gender, they propose an integrated lexicon (e.g., BIA+ model; Dijkstra & Van Heuven, 2002 and Multilink; Dijkstra, Wahl, Buytenhuijs, Van Halem, Al-Jibouri, De Korte & Rekké, 2019) or a direct influence between the two languages at the level of lexical representations (RHM; Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“…data indicate that in bilinguals, partly shared brain structures support lexical and morphosyntactic representations of the first (L1) and the second language (L2) (Goral, Levy, & Kastl, 2007; Kroll & Stewart, 1994), with the degree of overlap mostly depending on proficiency in the second language.”

“…two languages (i.e., whether they are represented in two different systems or in a single system), the most influential theoretical models assume a shared conceptual representation between the two languages (de Groot, 1992a; Kroll & Stewart, 1994, see also Kroll & Tokowicz, 2005, for an overview).”

“, Dijkstra & van Heuven , 2002 ; Kroll & Stewart , 1994 ) and that semantic processing in the absence of language does not differ for monolinguals and bilinguals .”

“A well-known model of bilingual lexical processing is the revised hierarchical model (RHM) proposed by Kroll and Stewart (1994) .”

“In the bilingual literature three models are dominant: the Bilingual Interactive Activation model of Dijkstra and his colleagues (Dijkstra & Van Heuven, 1998), Kroll’s Revised Hierarchical model (Kroll, 1993; Kroll & Stewart, 1994) and Grosjean’s Language Mode model (Grosjean, 1997).”

“Whereas the RHM helps to understand how this shared code may enhance foreign language comprehension by means of simplification, the CFM would introduce a cautionary note by highlighting shifting connotations and meanings.”

“…for their findings, one based on difficulties (of unbalanced bilingual children) in syntactic processing and the other based on their task, which is described as more conceptually mediated than the lexical processing tasks for which Kroll and Stewart (1994) report directionality effects.”

“Keywords: priming, frequency, BIA, RHM, cross-language, within-language”

“Participants are slower to name objects in homogeneous compared to heterogeneous blocks (Kroll and Stewart, 1994; Damian et al., 2001; Damian and Als, 2005; Abdel Rahman and Melinger, 2007).”

“…reading, which show that for most bilinguals there is an asymmetry of cross-language interaction as a function of language experience and use [e.g., Kroll and Stewart, 1994]; our results indicated that the VWFA deactivation may be modulated by stimulusspecific factors, such as target language…”

“…of pictures, naming times are slower (Abdel Rahman & Melinger, 2007; Belke, 2008; Belke, Meyer, & Damian, 2005; Damian, Vigliocco, & Levelt, 2001; Kroll & Stewart, 1994) and naming accuracy is lower (Schnur et al., 2006) when all the pictures are drawn from a common semantic category (a…”

“We therefore turned to a paradigm developed by Kroll and Stewart (1994)—the Applied Psycholinguistics 34:5 1063 Zhang et al.: Representation of abstract and concrete concepts blocked translation—where semantic relationship produced interference effects.”

“The paper by Hernandez and colleagues tests a model of translation by Kroll and Stewart ( 1994 ).”

“, the French word /tabl/ and the English word /teIbl/, both meaning ‘‘table’’) are inter-connected within the bilingual lexicon, whereas Kroll and Stewart (1994) argued that the existence of crosslanguage connections was not dependent on the words being cognates or not.”

“This model, known as the Concept Mediation Model, characterizes fluent bilinguals as having separate lexicons in each language with links to a shared and amodal semantic memory store (Kroll & Stewart, 1992; Potter, So, Von Eckardt, & Feldman, 1984).”

“…’ s asymmetric possession of linguistic resources in L1 and L2 a ff ects their language processing capacity in comprehension and production, thus generating di ff erent sets of evidence to support ‘ native ’ versus ‘ retour ’ interpreting (Godijns and Hinderdael, 2005; Kroll and Stewart, 1994).”