Category Interference in Translation and Picture Naming: Evidence for Asymmetric Connections Between Bilingual Memory Representations

“The IC model applications and tests Amplifying the revised hierarchical model Kroll and Stewart (1994) distinguished independent levels of representation for word form and meaning.”

“Research with both bilingual adults (Kroll & Stewart, 1994) and bilingual children (Bialystok, 1988) has revealed that the cognitive and linguistic consequences of bilingualism are more salient for those bilinguals who are relatively balanced in their proficiency, so the criterion of balanced…”

“Lexical retrieval takes more time for a low proficient L2 (Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Snodgrass, 1993).”

“Since then the focus has shifted away from the one versus two lexicons question to how the bilingual's lexical representation might be organized (see for example Potter et al., 1984; Kroll and Stewart, 1994; de Groot, 1992), but the problem of what the task is doing has not disappeared completely, as can be seen in di…”

“However, in a recent article Levelt et al. (1999) argued that their discrete serial stage model of lexical access could also explain this facilitation effect. They proposed that the effect observed by Peterson and Savoy (1998) for near-synonyms might reflect the unusual situation in which two lexical nodes are selecte…”

“To manage this conflict, bilinguals must attend to the relevant language system and ignore the unwanted system to assure fluency in speech production (e.g., Kroll and Stewart, 1994; Green, 1998; La Heij, 2005).”

“An exception to this general pattern comes from research on translation performance (e.g. Kroll and Stewart, 1994; Potter, So, Von Eckhardt and Feldman, 1984; Sholl, Sankaranarayanan and Kroll, 1995; De Groot and Poot, 1997; Kroll et al., 2002).”

“Put simply, do bilinguals have separate stores for the two languages, or do they have a single store for at least some aspects of language? Most research into this question has considered the representations of words or concepts (e.g., Kroll & Stewart, 1994; McElree, Jia, & Litvak, 2000), and there has been little con…”

“…speakers to perform such tasks as naming the pictures in their two (or more) languages (Costa & Santesteban, 2004; Hernandez, Martinez, & Kohnert, 2000), making semantic classifications for words in the two languages (Dufour & Kroll, 1995), or translating between languages (Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“Why then did the relatively proficient Dutch–English bilinguals in the Kroll and Stewart (1994) experiment show differential semantic effects in the two directions of translation?”

“Sp ϭ Spanish; Cat ϭ Catalan; Bsq ϭ Basque; Eng ϭ English; Fre ϭ French; New_L ϭ language. long been argued (e.g., Kroll & Stewart, 1994) that when the L2 of a bilingual is not well established yet, access to its lexical representations is mediated by previous access to the corresponding translation…”

“Stroop effects occur across languages (Tzelgov, Henik, & Leiser, 1990), and translation is affected by semantic manipulations (Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“…similar in sound and spelling) were translated faster than noncognates both by fairly ¯uent bilinguals (e.g., De Groot, 1992a; De Groot et al., 1994; Kroll & Stewart, 1994) and by novice learners of a foreign language (Lotto & De Groot, Address for correspondence Janet G. van Hell, Department of…”

“With respect to the retrieval process, we can then ask how this specific word was retrieved if the (original) language tag was supposedly Spanish. De Angelis (2005b) believes a word can be initially stored as belonging to one language, and can then be later associated with another language.”

“It is reasonable to suppose that the cognitive system mediating the meanings of words is common across languages (Francis, 1999; Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“So, for example, as individuals are able to access lexical concepts in L2 without L1 mediation (see Kroll & Stewart, 1994) then the language cue may become sufficient to ensure correct selection.”

“This semantic context effect has been observed in word translation (e.g., Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Vigliocco, Lauer, et al., 2002), picture naming (e.g., Belke et al., 2005; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Santesteban et al., 2006; Vigliocco, Vinson, et al., 2002), and word reading with determiner production…”

“According to psycholinguistics, during the early stages of L2 acquisition there might be a dependency on L1 to mediate access to meaning for L2 lexical items [18].”

“…to lexical-neighbor distractors found at test and retest is potentially congruent with the revised hierarchical model (RHM), according to which the connections between concepts and their L2 lexical representations are strengthened with increasing L2 proficiency (Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“A schema for word production in the translation (Kroll and Stewart, 1994; see also Kroll and De Groot, 1997): a non-semantic, direct route in which the word dominant language (L1) is in competition with a production schema for a second language (L2).”

“In the theoretical framework of the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994, pp. 162-166), the link would be associative in nature and therefore its strength would depend on the word frequency of the items involved.”

“…1983; Brown, 1981; Damian & Als, 2005; Damian, Vigliocco, & Levelt, 2001; Howard, Nickels, Coltheart, & Cole-Virtue, 2006; Hsiao, Schwartz, Schnur, & Dell, 2009; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Schnur, Schwartz, Brecher, & Hodgson, 2006; Vigliocco, Vinson, Damian, & Levelt, 2002; Wheeldon & Monsell, 1994).”

“Moreover, translation into the second language is notoriously more difficult than is the reverse (e.g., Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“particularly in proficient and highly proficient bilinguals (De Groot and Kroll 1997; Francis 1999; Kroll and Stewart 1994).”

“As pointed out by Kroll et al. (2010, p. 373), several studies found that forward translation (from L1 to L2) led to longer translation latencies than backward translation (from L2 to L1) (Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Sholl, Sankaranarayanan & Kroll, 1995).”

“With these results, Kroll & Stewart (1994) revised their model to include both the lexical links of the word association model and the conceptual links of the concept mediation model, and delineated the developmental shift through differentiation of the strength of the conceptual links.”

“This experiment uses the Kroll and Stewart (1994) paradigm, but controls for visual similarity across the conditions.”

“Many studies have shown that different effects are obtained in naming and translation when speaking in L1 or L2 (e.g., Cheung and Chen, 1998; Potter, So, Von Eckhardt and Feldman, 1984; Kroll and Stewart, 1994).”

“For example, in early stages of learning, second language (L2) vocabulary items are processed primarily through association with their translation equivalents in the first language (L1), whereas in later stages of learning they are more directly concept-mediated, i.e., associated with their meanings (Chen & Leung, 198…”

“A great deal of research on L2 learning demonstrates that there is transfer from the native or dominant first language (L1) to theweaker L2 (e.g., Kroll & Stewart, 1994;MacWhinney, 2005).”

“The revised hierarchical model (Kroll and Stewart, 1994) predicts that tasks that utilize the direct lexical connections”

“Models of L2 lexical development (e.g., Kroll & Stewart, 1994) suggest that the translation equivalent may be important during early stages of L2 learning but that skilled L2 users can access the meaning of L2 words without L1 mediation (Kroll, Michael, Tokowicz, & Dufour, 2002; Sunderman & Kroll,…”

“Separate repeated-measures analyses of variance were conducted for both translation directions with group as a between subjects-factor and cognate status 2Note that this effect of translation direction was opposite to what is predicted by the revised hierarchical model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“…1997; Dijkstra, van Jaarsveld, & ten Brinke, 1998), cog- 2003 Cambridge University Press 0142-7164/03 $12.00 Applied Psycholinguistics 24:2 174 Marian & Spivey: Bilingual and monolingual processing nates (DeGroot & Nas, 1991; Kroll & Stewart, 1994), and phoneme monitoring (Colome, 2001).”

“Some models (e.g., Kroll & Stewart, 1994) depict the first-language lexicon as bigger and containing more information than the second-language lexicon.”

“To determine the cognate status of the stimuli, following the procedure described in Kroll and Stewart (1994) a group of 10 monolingual Spanish natives from the Canary Islands were presented with the experimental words and asked to guess the corresponding Spanish word.”

“A series of studies has shown that for beginning adult L2 learners, words in L2 indirectly access concepts via words in L1, but advanced L2 learners have direct access to concepts for words in both languages (e.g., Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Sholl, Sankaranarayanan, & Kroll, 1995).”

“Note that a similar explanation at the conceptual level cannot account for the cognate effect because the conceptual representations of cognates and noncognates are considered to be shared between L1 and L2 (e.g., Kroll and Stewart 1994).”

“The basic effect is that targets are named more slowly in the homogeneous context, when pictures are named once (Brown, 1981; Kroll & Stewart, 1994), or multiple times pseudorandomly (Damian, 2003, experiment 2; Damian, Vigliocco, & Levelt, 2001; Maess, Friederici, Damian, Meyer, & Levelt, 2002).”

“This study placed the predictions of the BIA model ~Dijkstra et al+, 1998; Dijkstra & Van Heuven, 1998; Van Heuven et al+, 1998! and the RHM ~Kroll & Stewart, 1994! in the same context in order to address lexical processing in the L2+ The performance of two groups of native English speakers ~one…”

“The Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Kroll & Tokowicz, 2001), a dominant model in the field, accounts for the translation priming asymmetry by suggesting that: (1) the locus of the translation priming effect is at the level of meaning and that (2) relative to L1 representations,…”

“In the bilingual lexicon, translation equivalents are connected via associative links (Chen & Leung, 1989; De Groot, 1992; Kroll & Curley, 1988; Kroll & Stewart, 1994 ).”

“While the former tends to be seen as common across languages (Kroll & Stewart 1994; Francis 1999), the representation of L2 syntax has become a controversial issue.”

“In addition to separate storage of individual experiences (Hintzman 1986), we adopt the assumption of most psycholinguistic models of bilingual memory, such as the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll and Stewart 1994), of the existence of independent lexical stores for L1 and L2.”

“tionality effects. Kroll and Stewart (1994) proposed that words in L1 are directly linked to conceptual representations (the conceptual store), but that L2 words are initially learned via translations to L1 words.”

“…category (e.g., all objects are tools; homogeneous blocking condition) or unrelated objects from different categories (heterogeneous blocking condition; e.g., Belke, Meyer, & Damian, 2005; Damian & Als, 2005; Damian, Vigliocco, & Levelt, 2001; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Vigliocco et al., 2002a, 2002b).”

“…representations are treated as two separate levels, and no meaning is represented in lexical entries (e.g., the revised hierarchical model of Kroll & Stewart, 1994, and Kroll & de Groot, 1997; the distributed conceptual feature model of de Groot, 1992, and Kroll & de Groot), then the…”

“…architecture of the memory system of a particular type of bilingual and on the process of access to conceptual memory that ensues from this architecture ± as was the purpose of many other studies instantiating the old approach (e.g., Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Potter, So, Von Eckardt, & Feldman, 1984).”

“One of the issues that has received the most attention is how the two languages of a bilingual speaker are connected to each other and to conceptual representations (e.g., Chen & Ng, 1989; Francis, 1999; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Potter, So, Eckardt, & Feldman, 1984).”

“A number of bilingual studies have demonstrated that such a threshold is required for both form and semantic priming effects to be observed with bilingual participants (Bijeljac-Babic, Biardeau, & Grainger, 1997; Frenck-Mestre & Prince, 1997; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Van Hell & Dijkstra, 2002).”

“On the basis of a review of the available literature and new empirical research, Kroll and Stewart (1994) proposed a general model of bilingual language processing, the so-called Revised Hierarchical Model (RHM; Figure 1).”

“…in many word translation studies: translation from L2 to L1 can often be performed more rapidly and accurately than translation from L1 to L2, even for relatively ¯uent bilinguals (Keatley, Spinks and de Gelder, 1992; Kroll and Stewart, 1990, 1994; SaÂnchez-Casas, Davis and GarcãÂa-Albea, 1992).”

“…word to be learned is attached onto a representation of the corresponding L1 word that already existed in memory at the onset of learning (see, e.g., the “parasitic” model of vocabulary development of Hall, 2002, and Hall & Ecke, 2003, and the developmental model proposed by Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“Further evolution of these ideas has led to the proposal that bilinguals have a conceptual store that is shared by both languages, although a separate lexical store is maintained for each language (Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Potter, So, Von Eckardt, & Feldman, 1984).”

“…of a large number of psycholinguistic models of bilingual language representation and processing, e.g., the Revised Hierarchical model (RHM) (Kroll and Stewart, 1994), the Bilingual Model of Lexical Access (BIMOLA) (Léwy et al., 2005), the Bilingual Single Network (BSN) model (Thomas,…”

“knowledge ( Kroll & Stewart, 1994 ) assumes that such effects arise because word forms are connected directly to a shared conceptual space in proficient bilinguals.”

“Another model that acknowledges the coexistence of lexical and conceptual connections has been proposed by Kroll and Stewart (1994) .”

“Second, because current models of L2 processing demonstrate that processing is infl uenced by the native language system (Dijkstra, 2005 ; Kroll & Stewart, 1994 ), we also examine whether the presence of a gender system in the L1 that overlaps signifi cantly with the gender system of the L2…”

“This latter possibility is corroborated by behavioral investigations addressing the learning of words in a second language (Kroll and Stewart 1994), which suggest that in the initial learning phases the link between a novel word and the corresponding word in”

“Other recent experiments in this field have also used a similar procedure with randomized lists (e.g. Kroll and Stewart, 1994, Experiment 1).”

“If one assumes that hesitation in a second language derives from problems in accessing word forms (Kroll and Stewart 1994), then the dearth of gestures contra-indicates phonological retrieval as the beneficiary of gesture.”

“…following in urrent psycholinguistic models of the bilingual mental lexicon, hich assume that the two languages are represented in sepa- ate and at least partially independent lexicons (e.g., Dufour & roll, 1995; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; for reviews see Dijkstra & an Heuven, 2002; Francis, 2005).”

“The data for the new items replicated the translation asymmetry reported by Kroll and Stewart (1994): The time to translate from LI to L2 (1,413 ms) was 149 ms longer than the time to translate from L2 to LI (l,264”

“According to the conceptual approach, cross-language priming is conceptual in nature and the effects originate from the shared conceptual system (Potter et al., 1984; Kroll, 1993; Kroll and Stewart, 1994; De Groot, 1993).”

“For example, Kroll and Stewart (1994) found that there is shared conceptual understanding of L1 and L2 vocabularies; however, the connection from L1 to the shared concept is much stronger than that from L2 to a shared concept.”