Category Interference in Translation and Picture Naming: Evidence for Asymmetric Connections Between Bilingual Memory Representations

“…(1996) using forward and backward translation combined with a picture-word interference component, concept mediation was found for both translation directions, and backward translation was slower than forward translation, results that run counter to those obtained by Kroll and Stewart (1994).”

“…non-cognate lexical items (Kohnert, 2004; Tainturier & Roberts, 2010; see also Detry, Pillon, & de Partz, 2005; Lalor & Kirsner, 2001) has implications for bilingual lexical models that posit direct links between L1 and L2 lexical items irrespective of cognate status (e.g. Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“The Revised Hierarchal Model (RHM; Kroll & Stewart, 1994) has also been extended to include translation ambiguity (Kroll & Tokowicz, 2001; see Figure 2).”

“Alternatively, learning a new language through the indirect method (Weinreich 1953; cf. Potter et al. 1984; Kroll and Sholl 1992; Kroll and Stewart 1994), in which every L2 word to be learned is associated or translated into its L1 or the base language, will likely develop this type of system.”

“…production acknowledge a role of proficiency in lexical access either assuming stronger links between words and concepts for L1 relative to L2 (Kroll & Stewart, 1994: Revised Hierarchical Model - RHM, [although see Altarriba & Mathis, 1997; Brysbeart & Duyck, 2010 for debate on some claims of…”

“From a theoretical standpoint, the use of conceptually-scored vocabulary measures with bilinguals is well-supported (Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“The use of bridging to accelerate word learning in L2 is theoretically supported by the Revised Hierarchical Model (RHM; Kroll & Stewart, 1994), a psycholinguistic model of the lexicon that emphasizes the interconnectedness between languages and the role of L1 during L2 learning.”

“These findings are consistent with previous research (Dyer, 1971) and can be explained by a difference in automaticity of access to the words in each language based on dominance (Cohen et al., 1990; Kroll and Stewart, 1994).”

“…languages (e.g., Costa, Miozzo, & Caramazza, 1999; Hermans, Bongaerts, De Bot, & Scheuder, 1998; Kirsner, Smith, Lockhart, King, & Jain, 1984; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; La Heij et al., 1990; Potter, Von Eckardt, & Feldman, 1984; for a review, see Kroll & Tokowicz, 2005; Malt, Sloman, Gennari,…”

“This finding converges with data from previous studies (Adepoju & Elliott, 1997; Elliott & Adepoju, 1997; Kroll & Stewart, 1990), which have demonstrated that second language words are learned and recalled better if they are presented before rather than after the English word.”

“For unbalanced bilinguals, the stronger L1 has been argued to have direct access to meaning while the weaker L2 might require mediation via the L1-translated equivalent (see details in Revised Hierarchical Model, Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“Following this conjecture, learning more than one set of vocabularies would result in a complex lexico-semantic system, and the high demand placed on using this system would increase the lexico-semantic processing load for bilinguals [Abutalebi and Green, 2007; Dufour and Kroll, 1995; Kroll and Stewart, 1994].”

“Many of these models are relatively static, and represent adult lexical processing (e.g., the Distributed Feature Model, Van Hell & De Groot, 1998; the Bilingual Interactive Activation Plus, Dijkstra & Van Heuven, 2002; the Revised Hierarchical Model, Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“The RHM of Kroll and Stewart (1994) hypothesizes that there is a separate lexical representation for each language system and a shared conceptual representation in bilingual memory.”

“Models such as BIA (Dijkstra, Van Heuven & Grainger, 1998; Grainger, Midgley & Holcomb, 2010), the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994), or the Distributed Feature Model (De Groot, 1992) allow for a lexical item in one language to be linked to two different concepts or groups of…”

“Specifically, the finding that bilinguals are faster to translate words from the second language (L2) into the first language (L1), as compared to the reverse direction, translating from L1-L2 played a significant role in the creation of this model (Kroll and Stewart 1994).”

“The reason for the decrease of coupling from LIFGTri to LIFGOrb in L2 production could be explained by the Revised Hierarchical Model of lexical and conceptual representation in the bilingual brain [46, 47].”

“In line with this evidence, the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Kroll, Van Hell, Tokowicz, & Green, 2010) suggests that the degree of L2 proficiency impacts the Aphasiology.”

“We based this prediction on studies of parallel lexical activation and competition in bilinguals that have shown that higher proficiency and exposure or dominance in the target language lead to stronger form-meaning links in the lexicon (Dijkstra and Van Heuven, 2002; Gollan et al., 2008; Kroll and Stewart, 1994) and…”

“…be language non-specific, with information such as semantic and associative networks being tied to the conceptual values of words rather than a language specific form (akin to the Revised Hierarchical Model of Kroll and Stewart, 1994, whereby specific L1/L2 forms link to a shared conceptual store).”

“…by the occurrence of errors occurring in our everyday life (i.e. semantic errors) and by several experimental paradigms eliciting the so-called " semantic interference effect " (e.g. Lupker, 1979, Kroll & Stewart, 1994, Damian et al., 2001, Howard, Nickels, Coltheart, & Cole-Virtue, 2006).”

“…on attentional resources in young nonnative-English speakers may be higher than in younger and older native-English speakers because lexical access in nonnative speakers most likely requires the activation and integration of information from both their L1 and L2 lexicons (Kroll and Steward, 1994).”

“Although a considerable body of research has examined how two languages are represented in bilingual memory using single-word translation paradigms (Kroll and Stewart, 1994; Kroll and Tokowicz, 2001), there have not been many studies to examine sentence-level translation; only recently have experimental studies been c…”

“Other, more dominant models of the bilingual lexicon (e.g. the Revised Hierarchical Model of Kroll & Stewart, 1994; the Bilingual Interactive Activation+ Model of Dijkstra & Van Heuven, 2002) do not involve morphological representations, but the present results indicate that the morphological…”

“Kroll and Stewart 1994 ; Miller and Kroll 2002 ; see also Levelt, Roelofs, and Meyer 1999 ), often based on picture-naming tasks with single-word names.”

“For example, Kroll and colleagues ( Kroll and Stewart, 1994; Kroll and De Groot, 1997) argued that there exist both conceptual and lexical links in bilingual memory.”

“In the light of the many studies showing the processing of L1 vs. L2 (e.g. Snodgrass 1993; Kroll and Stewart 1994; von Studnitz and Green 1997; using reaction time as the diagnostic) to be more e‰cient and more accessible, the di¤erence in regards to the three phenomena discussed so far is not…”

“It has been suggested that novice learners are more heavily reliant on lexical links and e nd concept mediation particularly dife cult (Kroll, 1993; Kroll & Stewart, 1989, 1990 ).”

“There is considerable evidence that cognates are processed more quickly than matched noncognates in a range of production (word naming: [1]; picture naming: [2–3]; word translation: [4–7]) and comprehension tasks (lexical decision: [8–9]; masked priming: [10–14]; progressive de-masking: [9]; sentence comprehension: [1…”

“…are named in blocks that just contain other pictures from the same category (e.g., all vehicles) are named more slowly than pictures that are named in blocks that contain pictures from various other categories (e.g., Damian & Als, 2005; Damian, Vigliocco, & Levelt, 2001; Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“Results of the present study provide evidence for the revised hierarchical model (Kroll and Stewart 1994), which gives one possible explanation for cross-language priming asymmetry.”

“…with ‘lexical competition’ A number of authors, including AR&M, have argued that ‘semantic interference’ effects observed in other naming paradigms constitute support for the assumption of lexical competition (Damian, Vigliocco, & Levelt, 2001; Belke, Meyer, & Damian, 2005; Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“The findings suggest that input from either language provides opportunities for children to learn semantic representations that may be shared across the two languages (Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Sheng, Bedore, Peña & Fiestas, 2013).”

“…are consistent with theoretical models of bilingualism that posit such shared semantics across languages, such as the revised hierarchical model (Kroll and Stewart, 1994), the BIA+ model (Dijkstra and van Heuven, 2002), Green's convergence hypothesis (Green, 2003) and the distributed feature…”

“A third piece of evidence was reported by Marian and Fausey (2006), who ran an experiment in which bilinguals were taught domainspecific information from auditory input in L1 or L2.”

“…on a single, shared conceptual store for building lexical semantic connections (Kroll, van Hell, Tokowicz, & Green, 2010; Van Hell & De Groot, 1998; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; De Groot, 1992) by suggesting that these shared concepts are broadly preserved across entire groups of speakers of different…”

“At higher levels of conceptual representation, it is commonly accepted that the semantic level is shared across all languages spoken by an individual (De Groot, 1992; Kroll and Stewart, 1994; La Heij et al., 1996; Van Hell and De Groot, 1998; Gollan and Kroll, 2001).”

“…Abunuwara, 1992; Herwig, 2001; Mägiste, 1979, 1985, 1986; Ringbom, 1982; Schönpflug, 2000, 2003; Shanon, 1991), especially during the processing of lexical items that appear to be similar across languages (Chen & Leung, 1989; De Groot & Hoeks, 1995; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Mägiste, 1979, 1985).”

“…language (L1) is typically faster and more accurate than L1–L2 translation (e.g., Cattell, 1947; Chen & Leung, 1989; Francis & Gallard, 2005; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Potter et al., 1984; Sholl, Sankaranarayanan, & Kroll, 1995), although some studies have shown the opposite or no difference…”

“The RHM (Kroll & Stewart, 1994) suggests that backwards translation (i.e., translation from the L2 to the L1) relies upon the direct lexical links between the two lexicons more than forward translation, although the pattern in our data is just the opposite.”

“…models of bilingual language processing, the climax of the chapter is the presentation of a revamped version of the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll and Stewart 1994) with traces of the Distributed Feature Model (De Groot 1992, 1993) and the Shared Asymmetrical Model (Dong, Gui, and…”

“This replicates the results of earlier studies that used the semantic blocking paradigm (Belke & Meyer, 2007; Damian & Als, 2005; Kroll & Stewart, 1994) and indicates that the selection of the names of the left objects was more time consuming when all left objects of a block were members of the…”

“…hierarchical models according to the variation of the bilinguals’ second language proficiency: the Word Association Model, the Concept Mediation Model, and the Revised Hierarchical Model (Potter, So, Von Eckhart and Feldman, 1984; Kroll and Curley, 1988; Chen, 1990; Kroll and Stewart, 1990, 1994).”

“…prior to the SpanishGerman test, as translation from one’s native to a foreign language has been shown to be a more difficult task than the translation from a foreign language into one’s native language and in order to avoid cueing the Spanish words on the final test (Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“…have argued (Caramazza et al., 2001), and (2) that in line with one of the most influential models of bilingual language organization, the revised hierarchical model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994), there is a direct connection between the two languages at the level of lexical representation (lemma).”

“In addition, to explore the nature of the lexical selection mechanism, Ibáñez et al. adapted the language-switching paradigm (e.g., Costa & Santesteban, 2004; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Meuter & Allport, 1999; Thomas & Allport, 2000) to a sentence-reading task.”

“…the Revised Hierarchical Model) has proposed that the native and second languages share a common conceptual system (i.e., semantics), but their lexical forms (i.e., orthography and phonology) are represented separately (J. F. Kroll & Stewart, 1994; J. F. Kroll, van Hell, Tokowicz, & Green, 2010).”

“Several models of multilingual language processing argue that unbalanced bilinguals (i.e., speakers with a higher proficiency in one language than in another) access the conceptual store through the L1 lexicon (cf. Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Pavlenko, 2009).”

“…lexical access in one of the two languages is influenced by properties of the lexicon of the other language (Dijkstra, Grainger, and van Heuven 1999; Dijkstra and van Heuven 2002; Duyck 2005; Jared and Kroll 2001; Kroll and Stewart 1994, amongst many others; see Kroll et al. 2012 for a review).”

“For instance, a long-standing model of bilingual lexical architecture, the Revised Hierarchical model (RHM; Kroll and Stewart 1994), predicts that less proficient bilinguals rely on the L1 to retrieve meaning in L2, thus activating a path from L2 to L1 form when accessing conceptual meaning.”

“Still, one may argue that the low-proficient bilinguals made use of a translation strategy during the picture naming phase (e.g., Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“…processing have not treated the translation-equivalent relationship differently for concrete and abstract words (e.g., revised hierarchical model; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; bilingual interactive activation model; Dijkstra & Van Heuven, 2002; inhibitory control model; Green, 1998), and the present…”

“The later Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll and Stewart, 1994) attempts to combine these routes into a single developmental model in which the bilingual lexicon develops from a representational structure best captured by word association at low levels of proficiency to a structure best captured by…”

“Such a pattern suggests that involuntary intrusions may reflect the acquisition history with later learned languages linked more closely together (cf. Kroll & Stewart, 1994 ).”

“In this task, a word is presented in one language and its word-translation equivalent must be expressed in another language (cf. De Groot, 1992; Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“…conceptual or semantic representations independently of—or without influence from—lexical representations in the native or (L1) language (e.g.,Frenck-Mestre & Prince, 1997; Gerard & Scarborough, 1989; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Scarborough, Gerard, & Cortese, 1984; Talamas, Kroll, & DuFour, 1999).”

“The Hierarchical Model posits three linked components: a first language lexicon, a second language lexicon, and a conceptual store containing semantic referents (Dufour & Kroll, 1995; Kroll & Sholl, 1992; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Sholl, Sankaranarayanan, & Kroll, 1995).”

“The IC model applications and tests Amplifying the revised hierarchical model Kroll and Stewart (1994) distinguished independent levels of representation for word form and meaning.”

“Kroll and Stewart (1994) observed that picture-naming latencies were longer for semantically categorized lists than for randomized lists of items.”

“Examples of this type of theory include the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994) and MacWhinney’s (2005) Unified Model of Language Acquisition.”

“…unrelated items (e.g. Abdel Rahman & Melinger, 2007; Belke, 2008; Belke et al., 2005; Blaxton & Neely, 1983; Brown, 1981; Damian et al., 2001; Damian & Als, 2005; Howard et al., 2006; Hsiao et al., 2009; Kroll & Stewart, 1994; Schnur et al., 2006; Vig-liocco et al., 2002; Wheeldon & Monsell, 1994).”

“Because studies like ours also show that bilingual language processing is influenced by the valence of words, this finding must be accounted for in models like BIA+ [52,53], Revised Hierarchical Model [54], or Inhibitory Control [55,56].”

“The computational model follows the logic of the revised hierarchical model proposed by Kroll and Stewart (1994) for the two languages (L1 and L2) because it can account for both AoA and varying levels of proficiency through the differential connection strengths.”

“8 The revised hierarchical model of Kroll and Stewart (1994) is a developmental model of second-language acquisition although it has been applied to explaining translation performance.”

“This view is in line with the revised hierarchical model (RHM; Kroll & Stewart, 1994), which assumes that bilingual memory organization consists of two independent lexicons (L1 and L2) and an integrated conceptual system (CS).”

“…where the more dominant language is associated with a higher baseline activation level and a better efficiency in inhibiting cross-linguistic competition (e.g., McDonald, 1987; MacWhinney, 1992; Kroll and Stewart, 1994; Jared and Kroll, 2001; Dijkstra and Van Heuven, 2002; Gollan et al., 2008).”

“The results of the current study provide additional support to the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“The lexicons of bilingual individuals have two words for most concepts (Kroll and Stewart, 1994; Francis, 1999; Gollan and Kroll, 2001; Garbin et al., 2010).”

“The standard account of such automatic translation processes is in terms of direct connectivity between the word form representations of translations equivalents, as described in the RHM (Kroll & Stewart, 1994).”

“The first is that the lemma stage at the input level is either a separate but completely isomorphic module to the one at the output stage (and therefore with the same architecture), or that there is only one lemma stage which processes the information both in input and output from the semantic system (as hypothesized…”