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The effects of physical exercise in schizophrenia and affective disorders.
Abstract
Affective and non-affective psychoses are severe and frequent psychiatric disorders. Amongst others, they not only have a profound impact on affected individuals through their symptomatology, but also regarding cognition, brain structure and function. Cognitive impairment influences patients' quality of life as well as their ability to work and being employed. While exercise therapy has been implemented in the treatment of psychiatric conditions since the days of Kraepelin and Bleuler, the underlying mechanisms have never been systematically studied. Since the early 1990s, studies emerged examining the effect of physical exercise in animal models, revealing stimulation of neurogenesis, synaptogenesis and neurotransmission. Based on that body of work, clinical studies have been carried out in both healthy humans and in patient populations. These studies differ with regard to homogenous study samples, sample size, type and duration of exercise, outcome variables and measurement techniques. Based on their review, we draw conclusions regarding recommendations for future research strategies showing that modern therapeutic approaches should include physical exercise as part of a multimodal intervention programme to improve psychopathology and cognitive symptoms in schizophrenia and affective disorders.
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“Despite this, there is a distinct lack of systematic investigations (both animal and human) into the relationship between AE and neuroplasticity, hippocampal functioning, and its impact on cognitive dysfunctions in psychiatric disorders such as MDD (Malchow et al., 2013) or schizophrenia (Sommer and Kahn, 2015).”
From Aerobic Exercise as a Tool to Improve Hippocampal Plasticity and Function in Humans: Practical Implications for Mental Health Treatment (2016) · cites this paper as Malchow et al., 2013
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“The results obtained across other psychiatric or neurological conditions, as well as on aging, suggest that aerobic physical exercise may also have unequivocal beneficial effects on cognitive functioning in BD, though no studies are available in this population (Kucyi et al., 2010; Malchow et al., 2013).”
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“[43] summarized in their review of current clinical studies the effect of exercise on affective and schizophrenia patients and revealed positive effects in both disorders.”
BackgroundSelf-citationKandola, A., Hendrikse, J., Lucassen, P. J., & Yücel, M. (2016) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2016.00373 · Cited by 155
“…there is a distinct lack of systematic investigations (both animal and human) into the relationship between AE and neuroplasticity, hippocampal functioning, and its impact on cognitive dysfunctions in psychiatric disorders such as MDD (Malchow et al., 2013) or schizophrenia (Sommer and Kahn, 2015).”
Malchow, B., Keller, K., Hasan, A., Dörfler, S., Schneider-Axmann, T., Hillmer-Vogel, U., Honer, W. G., Schulze, T. G., Niklas, A., Wobrock, T., et al. (2015) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbv020 · Cited by 103
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“In later endurance training studies, a minimum of 30min per training session and at least three sessions per week were recommended in schizophrenia patients (75).”
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“Until now, only these two neuroimaging studies with contradictory results have reported the impact of endurance training on brain structure and function in schizophrenia (Malchow et al., 2013).”
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“As physical exercise is a component of yoga and can improve cognitive functions (25), it was unclear whether the observed beneficial effects of yoga were attributable to physical exercise training that was included in the yoga training.”
BackgroundNeurobiological effects of aerobic exercise, with a focus on patients with schizophrenia
Maurus, I., Hasan, A., Röh, A., Takahashi, S., Rauchmann, B., Keeser, D., Malchow, B., Schmitt, A., & Falkai, P. (2019) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-019-01025-w · Cited by 68
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“In general, the positive effects on mental health, cognition and brain activity as a result of an exercise program are quite evident [7-10].”
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Self-citationBuschert, V. C., Prochazka, D., Bartl, H., Diemer, J., Malchow, B., Zwanzger, P., & Brunnauer, A. (2018) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-018-0916-0 · Cited by 55
“Physical exercise has not only been associated with a reduction of depressive symptoms [5], but also with effects on cognitive performance (for a review, see [18]).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationPhysical Activity in Schizophrenia is Higher in the First Episode than in Subsequent Ones
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“Finally, exercise interventions have regained interest in schizophrenia targeting various problems of these patients, such as metabolic, cognitive, and social problems (36).”
BackgroundAerobic exercise and its effects on cognition in schizophrenia
Falkai, P., Malchow, B., & Schmitt, A. (2017) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/yco.0000000000000326 · Cited by 48
Self-citationJiang, P., Zhu, T., Xia, Z., Gao, F., Gu, W., Chen, X., Yuan, T., & Yu, H. (2015) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-015-0588-y · Cited by 41
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“Side effects of antipsychotic drugs may contribute to an elevated risk of weight gain and the development of metabolic disturbances in schizophrenia (Hägg et al. 2006; Rege, 2008; Malchow et al. 2013; Marder et al. 2014).”
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Stanton, R., Rosenbaum, S., Kalucy, M., Reaburn, P., & Happell, B. (2015) · Australian Journal of Primary Health · doi:10.1071/py14054 · Cited by 38
“However, there is growing evidence that exercise may play a Journal compilation La Trobe University 2015 www.publish.csiro.au/journals/py valuable role in the treatment (Cooney et al. 2013;Malchow et al. 2013) and prevention (Mammen and Faulkner 2013) of some mental illnesses.”
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BackgroundEndurance training in patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls: differences and similarities
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Self-citationEnhancing Neuroplasticity to Augment Cognitive Remediation in Schizophrenia
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“Some review studies (23, 72, 77) suggest a minimum of three sessions per week (at least 30 min/ session) of moderate-intensity aerobic training for schizophrenia patients, administered in a supervised group setting for a minimum of 12 weeks, which is in line with recommendations by the American College of Sports Medic…”
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“Physical exercise is described to show beneficial effects on symptoms in both schizophrenia and affective disorders and is recommended as part of multimodal intervention programs (60).”
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“One study (Scheewe et al., 2013) reported having a support control group (e.g. lifestyle counselling), and one study reported having an active control group (e.g. Malchow et al., 2013).”
Influentialvan der Stouwe, E. C. D., de Vries, B., Aleman, A., Arends, J., Waarheid, C. O., Meerdink, A., van der Helm, E., van Busschbach, J. T., & Pijnenborg, G. H. M. (2016) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-016-0918-2 · Cited by 15
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“A recent review [6, 7] stated that such studies have neglected the effects of physical exercise on cognitive performance in patients with schizophrenia despite the strong association between cognitive function and clinical outcome.”
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Egzersiz bağımlılığı: bir güncelleme
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“…with schizophrenia have been studied in previous narrative and systematic reviews, covering and merging different types of exercise [30, 31, 37, 45, 46, 49], or looking at the efficacy of combined physical and cognitive training [49], or focusing specifically on aerobic exercise [30, 33, 35,…”
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“These may include job loss, unemployment, stigmatisation, social isolation, inactivity, and difficulty with co-ordination, planning, and execution of social engagements (Drake & Whitley, 2014; Gard et al., 2014; Kramers-Olen, 2014; Malchow et al., 2013).”
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“Our study uses a preclinical model to attempt to learn about a possible mechanism that underpins the clinical efficacy of physical exercise on cognitive capacity in human psychiatric patients (Kn€ ochel et al. 2012; Malchow et al. 2013; Firth et al. 2017).”
InfluentialAssociations between daily steps and cognitive function among inpatients with schizophrenia
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Koç, K., Arslan, T., Pepe, O., Kaynak, K., Yüce, M. S., Dalbudak, İ., Atar, Ö., KOÇYİĞİT, B., Bayıroğlu, G. B., Ünver, Ş., et al. (2025) · Children · doi:10.3390/children12040404 · Cited by 7
“Malchow et al. [36] found that adolescents engaging in regular physical activity had lower depression scores, while those with minimal or no exercise participation showed significantly higher depression levels.”
Semler, E., Herpich, F., Zellner, L., Zwick, S., Zwanzger, P., & Brunnauer, A. (2024) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-024-01773-4 · Cited by 6
“The benefits of exercise on neurocognitive impairment in the schizophrenic population have received a comparable attention only in recent years, see [22].”
The influence of marathon running on resting-state EEG activity: a longitudinal observational study
Moussiopoulou, J., Pross, B., Handrack, M., Keeser, D., Pogarell, O. M., Halle, M., Falkai, P., Scherr, J., Hasan, A., & Roeh, A. (2023) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-023-05356-4 · Cited by 6
“As a result, PA has been included in therapeutic regimens in these cases (Malchow et al. 2013), although the mechanisms behind these observations are not yet fully understood.”
BackgroundSelf-citationKhedr, M. A., El-Gueneidy, M., Shehata, A., & Elkot, M. A. (2020) · Alexandria Scientific Nursing Journal · doi:10.21608/asalexu.2020.206107 · Cited by 5
“Moreover, there has been a growing interest in investigating the relationship between physical exercises and symptoms of schizophrenia((26)).”
BackgroundEffect of Aerobic Exercise in Positive and Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia
Nasution, N. M., Effendy, E., Amin, M. M., & Siregar, I. R. (2021) · Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.3889/oamjms.2021.6324 · Cited by 5
van der Stouwe, E. C. D., de Vries, B., Steenhuis, L. A., Waarheid, C. O., Jans, R., de Jong, S., Aleman, A., Pijnenborg, G. H. M., & Busschbach, J. T. V. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0279185 · Cited by 4
“Previous research investigating body and movement oriented therapies demonstrated improvements on self-esteem, social interaction skills and psychiatric symptoms in people with a psychotic disorder [9, 51, 52].”
BackgroundExercise and mental health - implications for treatment: A review of the literature
Sharkey, J. L. (2016) · Cited by 3
Möller, H. (2017) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-017-0825-7 · Cited by 3
“If we consider that already quite simple motoric activities can induce MRI-measured brain volume alterations [1], in this case brain volume increase, why should antipsychotics interfering with several cerebral processes not have this brain volume reducing effect? The question then is rather, what kind of consequences…”
BackgroundBitter, I., Czobor, P., & Tombor, L. (2025) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci15050499 · Cited by 2
“Recent reviews have reported that lifestyle interventions focused solely on regular physical activity (‘exercise therapy’) in patients with schizophrenia were associated with reduced symptom severity at the study endpoints in most of the analyzed publications [81,82].”
Sport tut auch der Psyche gut!
Malchow, B., Schmitt, A., & Falkai, P. (2014) · MMW - Fortschritte der Medizin · doi:10.1007/s15006-014-0044-3 · Cited by 2
“schweren Depressionen und Schizophrenien zu lindern [2].”
BackgroundSelf-citationCarrier, K., Abdel‐Baki, A., Thériault, L., Karelis, A. D., Lecomte, T., & Romain, A. J. (2024) · Early Intervention in Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/eip.13611 · Cited by 2
Impact of aerobic exercise on cognitive function in patients with schizophrenia during daily nursing
Chen, C., Yang, Y., Ye, X., Jin, Y., Cai, Z., & Zheng, J. (2021) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000023876 · Cited by 2
“Kimhy et al[30] and Leutwyler et al[29] revealed the similar findings that high physical fitness or more physical activity are associated with better cognitive performance, including executive functioning, verbal working memory, and speed of processing among patients with SZ.”
InfluentialPsychotische Störungen und Schizophrenie
Clamor, A., Frantz, I., & Lincoln, T. M. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-61814-1_44 · Cited by 3
Padilla, C., & Andrés, P. (2021) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.99738 · Cited by 2
Karaoğlu, B., Ceviz, E., Ünver, Ş., ÇİFTÇİ, İ., Demir, G. T., Güvendi, B., Bulğay, C., Alpay, M., Ihász, F., Zoltan, A., et al. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1597239 · Cited by 2
“In addition to its physiological benefits, exercise interventions are increasingly recognized as effective therapeutic strategies for managing mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, and stress (Kandola and Stubbs, 2020; Malchow et al., 2013; Sicilia et al., 2023).”
The Therapeutic Role of Exercise in Schizophrenia
Karmakar, D., Das, A., Bhutia, T. O., Govindasamy, K., & Dubey, S. S. (2026) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-6157-4.ch004 · Cited by 1
Ventura, J., Roell, L., Maurus, I., & Firth, J. (2026) · Schizophrenia Bulletin Open · doi:10.1093/schizbullopen/sgag006 · Cited by 1
Sport Psychology in Sports, Exercise and Physical Activity
NIELSEN, H. G. (2021) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.95675 · Cited by 2
Jianu, A., & Iorga, A. (2024) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2024.155049 · Cited by 1
Lukowski, T. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-54544-7_5 · Cited by 1
Impact of lifestyle in severe psychiatric disorders and brain morphology
Schmitt, A., & Falkai, P. (2013) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-013-0430-3 · Cited by 1
Self-citationOn the search of new treatment strategies in patients with affective disorders
Schmitt, A., & Falkai, P. (2017) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-017-0844-4 · Cited by 1
“Current pathophysiological concepts in affective disorders, which emphasize the effect of aerobic exercise on adult neurogenesis, hippocampal dysfunction, and volume loss and neurotrophic signalling, have been proposed [1].”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationActividad física y salud mental en una Unidad de Hospitalización Breve
Gómez, Á. P. (2014) · RUC (Universidade Da Coruña)
Being physically active : a bodily anchorage on the journey for recovery in mental ill-health
Lassenius, O. (2014) · Figshare
Neue Ansätze in der Schizophrenietherapie
Strube, W., Falkai, P., & Hasan, A. (2015) · DNP - Der Neurologe und Psychiater · doi:10.1007/s15202-015-0941-4
“…Unterschiede in der Stichprobengröße, der Art und Dauer der Sportintervention, der Zielvariablen und der Erhebungsinstrumente zeigt (modifi ziert nach Malchow et al. 2013 [40]). a n = 27 Yoga; n = 17 aerobes Ausdauertraining; b n = 27 Kontrollprobanden führten die gleiche Sportintervention durch.”
BackgroundSelf-citationCommunity-based support groups for mental health care users : a social constructionist approach
Meiring, L. (2015) · Unisa Institutional Repository (University of South Africa)
Examining the effects of aerobic exercise and bilateral movement on frontal alpha asymmetry
Hicks, R. A. (2016) · UWSpace (University of Waterloo)
Effekte von Sporttraining bei psychischen Störungen
Oertel‐Knöchel, V., Mehler, P., & Hänsel, F. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-46537-0_2
Self-citationSporttherapie bei Schizophrenie
Keller-Varady, K., Falkai, P., & Malchow, B. (2017) · PSYCH up2date · doi:10.1055/s-0042-118429
“Besonders zum Einsatz von sporttherapeutischen Angeboten bei Erkrankungen aus dem schizophrenen Formenkreis erschienen zahlreiche neue Publikationen, systematische Reviews und Metaanalysen seit der Publikation einer ersten Übersichtsarbeit [2].”
BackgroundSelf-citationIndividuals with and without Schizophrenia: Do Physical Activity and Gender Differentiate them?
Christos, K., & Bebetsos, E. (2017) · Journal of psychiatry · doi:10.4172/2378-5756.1000416
“This result agrees with previous researches [19,20], according to which fatigue increases in the patient group too.”
ResultMalchow, B., Lembeck, M., Maurus, I., Roeh, A., Papiol, S., Hasan, A., Falkai, P., & Schmitt, A. (2018) · Nervenheilkunde · doi:10.1055/s-0038-1651942
“Die Studieninterventionen und die diagnostischen Verfahren variieren stark (26).”
BackgroundSelf-citationGujral, S. (2018) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh)
Psychotherapeutische und psychosoziale Interventionen (Modul 4b)
Gäebel, W., Hasan, A., & Falkai, P. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-59380-6_6
Self-citationMeditation for Major Depressive Disorder: A Systematic Review
Sorbero, M. E. S., Ahluwalia, S. C., Reynolds, K. A., Lovejoy, S. L., Farris, C. A., Sloan, J., Miles, J. N. V., Vaughan, C., Kandrack, R., Apaydin, E. A., et al. (2015) · RAND Corporation eBooks · doi:10.7249/rr1138
Hasan, A., & Wobrock, T. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-3-437-22305-1.00003-x
Self-citationRecent Developments in Treating Cognitive Impairment Associated with SchizophreniaPreprint
Bittner, R. A., Barnes-Scheufler, C. V., Hettwer, M. D., Reif, A., & Qubad, M. (2021) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202105.0257.v1
Metadata
- Authors
- Malchow, B., Reich-Erkelenz, D., Oertel-Knöchel, V., Keller, K., Hasan, A., Schmitt, A., Scheewe, T. W., Cahn, W., Kahn, R. S., & Falkai, P.
- Affiliations
- Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (DE)
- University of Göttingen (DE)
- Universidade de São Paulo (BR)
- Windesheim University of Applied Sciences (NL)
- University Medical Center Utrecht (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Malchow, Berend
- Venue
- European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience
- Published
- 2013-07-20
- Volume
- 263
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 451-467
- ISSN
- 0003-9373 (ISSN-L)
- 0940-1334
- 1433-8491
- OpenAlex
- W2052275405
- Cited by
- 111
- References
- 158
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 1.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- GRO (submittedVersion)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- OPUS (Augsburg University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Physical Activity and Health
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Mental Health and Psychiatry
- Keywords
- physical activity, schizophrenia, mood disorders, exercise therapy, cognitive impairment, neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, neurotransmission, multimodal intervention, animal models of psychosis, quality of life
- MeSH terms
- Brain, Humans, Schizophrenia, Exercise, Mood Disorders, Neurogenesis, Neuroimaging
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