Regulation of muscle potassium: exercise performance, fatigue and health implications

Lindinger, Michael I.; Cairns, Simeon P.

doi:10.1007/s00421-020-04546-8

Cited by 78Potassium and Related DisordersCardiovascular and exercise physiologyExercise and Physiological Responses

Regulation of muscle potassium: exercise performance, fatigue and health implications

Lindinger, Michael I., Cairns, Simeon P.·2021·European Journal of Applied Physiology

DOI 10.1007/s00421-020-04546-8

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Abstract

This review integrates from the single muscle fibre to exercising human the current understanding of the role of skeletal muscle for whole-body potassium (K+) regulation, and specifically the regulation of skeletal muscle [K+]. We describe the K+ transport proteins in skeletal muscle and how they contribute to, or modulate, K+ disturbances during exercise. Muscle and plasma K+ balance are markedly altered during and after high-intensity dynamic exercise (including sports), static contractions and ischaemia, which have implications for skeletal and cardiac muscle contractile performance. Moderate elevations of plasma and interstitial [K+] during exercise have beneficial effects on multiple physiological systems. Severe reductions of the trans-sarcolemmal K+ gradient likely contributes to muscle and whole-body fatigue, i.e. impaired exercise performance. Chronic or acute changes of arterial plasma [K+] (hyperkalaemia or hypokalaemia) have dangerous health implications for cardiac function. The current mechanisms to explain how raised extracellular [K+] impairs cardiac and skeletal muscle function are discussed, along with the latest cell physiology research explaining how calcium, β-adrenergic agonists, insulin or glucose act as clinical treatments for hyperkalaemia to protect the heart and skeletal muscle in vivo. Finally, whether these agents can also modulate K+-induced muscle fatigue are evaluated.

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Extracellular potassium levels, which rise during intense exercise, can further disrupt muscle excitation and contraction processes, contributing to muscle fatigue.
“Additionally, extracellular potassium levels, which rise during intense exercise, can further disrupt muscle excitation and contraction processes, contributing to muscle fatigue17,39.”
From Evaluating bioenergetic pathway contributions from single to multiple sprints (2024) · cites this paper as [39]

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Volume regulation in mammalian skeletal muscle: the role of sodium–potassium–chloride cotransporters during exposure to hypertonic solutions
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Self-citation
Glucose supplements increase human muscle in vitro Na+-K+-ATPase activity during prolonged exercise
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Inward rectifier potassium currents in mammalian skeletal muscle fibres
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Extracellular potassium concentration and membrane potential in rabbit gastrocnemius muscle during tourniquet ischemia
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Role of skeletal muscle in plasma ion and acid-base regulation after NaHCO3and KHCO3loading in humans
Lindinger, M. I., Franklin, T. W., Lands, L. C., Pedersen, P. K., Welsh, D. G., & Heigenhauser, G. J. F. (1999) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.1999.276.1.r32 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
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Changes in intracellular ion activities induced by adrenaline in human and rat skeletal muscle
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K+ balance during exercise and role of beta-adrenergic stimulation
Hallén, J., Saltin, B., & Sejersted, O. M. (1996) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.1996.270.6.r1347 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Relationship between membrane Cl− conductance and contractile endurance in isolated rat muscles
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Role of potassium in the regulation of systemic physiological function during exercise
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Plasma K + dynamics and implications during and following intense rowing exercise
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Involvement of sex hormonal regulation of K+ channels in electrophysiological and contractile functions of muscle tissues
Sakamoto, K., & Kurokawa, J. (2019) · Journal of Pharmacological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jphs.2019.02.009 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Pro-arrhythmic effects of low plasma [K + ] in human ventricle: An illustrated review
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The distribution of intracellular alkali metals in Reference Man
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Glucose Infusion Attenuates Muscle Fatigue in Rat Plantaris Muscle During Prolonged Indirect Stimulation in Situ
Karelis, A. D., Péronnet, F., & Gardiner, P. F. (2002) · Experimental Physiology · doi:10.1113/eph8702391 · Cited by 23 · see citing works

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International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: sodium bicarbonate and exercise performance
Grgic, J., Pedisic, Z., Saunders, B., Artioli, G. G., Schoenfeld, B. J., McKenna, M. J., Bishop, D. J., Kreider, R. B., Stout, J. R., Kalman, D. S., et al. (2021) · Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition · doi:10.1186/s12970-021-00458-w · Cited by 138 · see citing works
A monolithically integrated in-textile wristband for wireless epidermal biosensing
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Potassium homeostasis: sensors, mediators, and targets
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New insights into the cellular and molecular mechanisms of skeletal muscle fatigue: the Marion J. Siegman Award Lectureships
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MRI of Potassium and Sodium Enables Comprehensive Analysis of Ion Perturbations in Skeletal Muscle Tissue After Eccentric Exercise
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The potassium–glycogen interaction on force and excitability in mouse skeletal muscle: implications for fatigue
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Diet, cellular, and systemic homeostasis control the cycling of potassium stable isotopes in endothermic vertebrates
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Plasma potassium concentration and cardiac repolarisation markers, Tpeak–Tend and Tpeak–Tend/QT, during and after exercise in healthy participants and in end-stage renal disease
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Pre‐loading large volume oral electrolytes: tracing fluid and ion fluxes in horses during rest, exercise and recovery
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Oral digoxin effects on exercise performance, K+ regulation and skeletal muscle Na+,K+‐ATPase in healthy humans
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Oral Electrolyte and Water Supplementation in Horses
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Effect of Lactate Minimum Speed-Guided Training on the Fluid, Electrolyte and Acid-Base Status of Horses
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The Influence of a Polyphenol-Rich Red Berry Fruit Juice on Recovery Process and Leg Strength Capacity after Six Days of Intensive Endurance Exercise in Recreational Endurance Athletes
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Total Carbon Dioxide in Adult Standardbred and Thoroughbred Horses
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7-T Potassium ( 39 K) MRI to Assess Muscle K + Depletion in Primary Aldosteronism
Kopp, C., Dahlmann, A., Gast, L. V., Linz, P. R., Frielinghaus, J., Breunig, P., Ströbel, A., Bäuerle, T. D., Kürzinger, L., Luft, F. C., et al. (2026) · Radiology · doi:10.1148/radiol.252004 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Comparison of Natural Mineral Water From Agrı Province With Sports Drinks
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A single oral glucose load decreases arterial plasma [K + ] during exercise and recovery
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Risk factors analysis of hypokalemia after radical resection of esophageal cancer and establishment of a nomogram risk prediction model
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Effect of vitamin energy drinks on relieving exercise-induced fatigue in muscle group by ultrasonic bioimaging data analysis
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Resting membrane potential and intracellular [Na+] at rest, during fatigue and during recovery in rat soleus muscle fibres in situ
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ATP1A2 negatively regulates myogenic differentiation and thermogenesis in C2C12 myoblasts
Manigandan, S., & Yun, J. W. (2025) · Biotechnology and Bioprocess Engineering · doi:10.1007/s12257-025-00192-z · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Exercise- and diet-induced glycogen depletion impairs performance during one-legged constant-load, high-intensity exercise in humans
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Digoxin and exercise effects on skeletal muscle Na+,K+‐ATPase isoform gene expression in healthy humans
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Non‐Invasive Real‐Time Detection of Potassium Level Changes in Skeletal Muscles During Exercise by Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
Roesli, E., Primasová, H., Thiede, M., Mani, L., Gast, L. V., Nagel, A. M., Vogt, B., & Vermathen, P. (2025) · NMR in Biomedicine · doi:10.1002/nbm.70173 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Intelligent Scanning Detection System of Muscle Exercise Fatigue Based on Surface Electromyography
Wang, W. (2022) · Scanning · doi:10.1155/2022/9163978 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Retracted
Plasma Acidosis and Peak Power after a Supramaximal Trial in Elite Sprint and Endurance Cyclists: Effect of Bicarbonate
Mildenhall, M. J., Maunder, E., Plews, D. J., Lindinger, M. I., & Cairns, S. P. (2022) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000003104 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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Plant-Based Dietary Protein Is Associated with Lower Metabolic Syndrome Risk in Division III Female Athletes: A Pilot Study
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A potentiometric sensor based on porous ZnO nanorod-modified laser-induced graphene electrodes for point-of-care salivary potassium ion detection
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The exquisite link between potassium homeostasis regulation and cardiovascular health: exploration and analysis
Wang, C., Huang, X., Zhang, Z., Lin, D., & Huang, S. (2026) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2026.1772535 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-powered, conformable sweat sensing bioelectronics for multiplexed biomarker detection and sports health management
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Ischemic Preconditioning Does Not Attenuate Reductions in Rate of Torque Development After Fatiguing Resistance Exercise
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Mineral patterns in hair: A decisive factor between reproducible and repeat breeder dairy cows
Lim, H.-J., Lee, S., Park, W., Park, E., & Yoo, J. G. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0301362 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Enhancing satiety and aerobic performance with beer microparticles-based non-alcoholic drinks: exploring dose and duration effects
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CORRELATION BETWEEN DIET QUALITY AND BODY COMPOSITION WITH WORK FATIGUE IN FEMALE WORKERS
Atmaka, D. R., Arini, S. Y., & Khoiroh, M. (2025) · Media Gizi Indonesia · doi:10.20473/mgi.v20i1.27-37 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Plasma Potassium Negatively Correlates With Sodium Chloride Cotransporter Abundance and Phosphorylation in Urinary Extracellular Vesicles From Patients With Chronic Kidney Disease
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Assessing the effects of Turkey berry (Solanum torvum) tea consumption on cardiometabolic indices in people living with hypertension
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Suboptimal Caloric and Micronutrient Intakes in Female Student Athletes Across Several Division 1 Collegiate Sports
Victor, R. L., Nishisaka, M. M., McGrath, A. F., Gladding, M. K., Grosskopf, L., Ben-Moshe, H., Sikalidis, A. K., Kristo, A. S., & Reaves, S. K. (2025) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17223625 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Arterio-venous metabolite and electrolyte responses to low-load training with and without blood flow restriction versus high-load training to failure
Ji, S., Vicas, M., Franz, A., Boemer, T., Behringer, M., & Wahl, P. (2025) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-025-06067-8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Comparison of nebulized salbutamol and glucose-insulin for preventing acute hyperkalemia in liver transplantation: a randomized, double-blind trial
Ding, Y., Wen, J., & Xiao, Y. (2026) · Journal of Anesthesia · doi:10.1007/s00540-025-03643-2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Potentiation of force by extracellular potassium is not dependent on muscle length in mouse EDL muscle
Angelidis, A., Overgaard, K., & Vandenboom, R. (2023) · American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00456.2023 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Differential effects of contracting muscle mass and relative exercise intensity on arterial plasma potassium concentration during and following incremental arm and leg cycling exercise
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Cardiac repolarisation indices are associated with oxygen consumption during maximal exercise test in highly-trained cross-country skiers
Veselik, A. K., Arteyeva, N. V., Геннадьевна, В. Н., Логинова, Т. П., Олегович, Г. И., Bojko, E. R., & Azarov, J. E. (2024) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2024.2383009 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A simple on-field fast knee-flexion test to assess acute knee flexor fatigue
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Physicochemical Composition, Antioxidant Properties and Glycemic Index of Optimized Extruded Snacks from Blends of Amaranth, Soycake and Shallot FloursPreprint
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Obtaining, encapsulation, and application of carotenoid-rich extract from guaraná peel (Paullinia cupana)
Pinho, L. S. (2022) · doi:10.11606/t.74.2022.tde-29072022-091037
The regulatory effect of resveratrol on the elemental change in cardiac tissue after high-intensity exercise
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Newcomb–Benford’s Law in Neuromuscular Transmission: Validation in Hyperkalemic Conditions
da Silva, A. J., Floquet, S., & Lima, R. (2023) · Stats · doi:10.3390/stats6040066
Oral electrolyte supplementation and prevention of dehydration in horses
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Self-citation
Optimizing serum electrolyte levels in stroke patients: a multimodal approach with soymilk supplementation
Esmealy, B., Esmealy, L., Gholizadeh, L., Nikookheslat, S., & Sari-Sarraf, V. (2024) · Annals of Medicine and Surgery · doi:10.1097/ms9.0000000000002390
Acute oral digoxin in healthy adults hastens fatigue and increases plasma K+ during intense exercise, despite preserved skeletal muscle Na+,K+‐ATPase
Atanasovska, T., Farr, T., Smith, R. L., Petersen, A. C., GARNHAM, A. P., Andersen, M. J., Krum, H., Wong, C. Y., & McKenna, M. J. (2024) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jp287274
Concentraciones séricas de potasio en preeclámpticas y embarazadas sanas
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Potassium regulation during exercise and recovery in humans: Implications for skeletal and cardiac muscle
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Authors: Lindinger, M. I., & Cairns, S. P.
Affiliations: Auckland University of Technology (NZ)
Corresponding author: Cairns, Simeon P.
ORCID: Lindinger, Michael I.
Cairns, Simeon P.
Venue: European Journal of Applied Physiology
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2021-01-04
Volume: 121
Issue: 3
Pages: 721-748
ISSN: 0020-9376 (ISSN-L)
1439-6319
1439-6327
DOI: 10.1007/s00421-020-04546-8
OpenAlex: W3119220887
Cited by: 78
References: 262
Citations by year: 2026: 14 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 6
FWCI: 1.98
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
www.springer.com/tdm (vor)
Locations: European Journal of Applied Physiology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Pulmonary and Respiratory Medicine › Potassium and Related Disorders
Health Sciences › Medicine › Complementary and alternative medicine › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
Health Sciences › Medicine › Rehabilitation › Exercise and Physiological Responses
Keywords: physical activity, muscle fatigue, hyperkalemia, hypokalemia, plasma potassium, ischemia, cardiac function, exercise performance, calcium, beta-adrenergic agonists, insulin, glucose
MeSH terms: Humans, Potassium, Exercise, Muscle, Skeletal, Muscle Fatigue

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Regulation of muscle potassium: exercise performance, fatigue and health implications

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