The course and interrelationship of maternal and paternal perinatal depression
Open accessAbstract
The aims of the study were to describe course of depression in both mothers and fathers from the third trimester of pregnancy through 6 months postpartum and to examine the relationship between maternal and paternal depression. Hypotheses were as follows: (a) Depressive symptoms would be correlated between parents and (b) earlier depressive symptoms in one parent would predict later increases in depression in the other. Eighty cohabitating primiparous couples were recruited from prenatal OBGYN visits and community agencies and enrolled during pregnancy, between 28-week gestation and delivery. Participants completed measures of depression on four occasions: baseline and 1, 3, and 6 months postpartum. Ninety-eight percent of the enrolled couples (78; 156 individuals) completed the study. For both mothers and fathers, symptom severity ratings and classification as a probable case were stable across time, with prenatal depression persisting through 6 months in 75 % of mothers and 86 % of fathers. Prenatal depression in fathers predicted worsening depressive symptom severity in mothers across the first six postpartum months but not vice versa. In both expecting/new mothers and fathers, depression demonstrates a stable pattern of occurrence and symptom severity between 28-month gestation and 6 months postpartum. Although prenatal maternal depression is not predictive of symptom change in fathers, mothers with prenatally depressed partners showed significant worsening in overall symptom severity during the first six postpartum months.
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Longitudinal designs are essential for understanding changes in parental well-being during the peripartum period.
“Fourth, longitudinal designs are essential for understanding changes in parental well-being during the peripartum period, as noted, among others, by Paulson et al. and Philpott et al. [52,53].”
From Fathers at risk: Effects of threatened and actual preterm birth on the course of paternal peripartum depression and anxiety (2026) · cites this paper as [52]
The Discussion says that prospective, closely spaced measurements allowed the authors to characterize trends in maternal and paternal depression during the transition to parenthood. This supports the value of longitudinal designs for studying change, but the paper addresses depression rather than parental well-being generally and does not say such designs are essential. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPaternal perinatal depression influences the father-child relationship and is related to less optimal relationships between couples as well as to maternal depression, doubling the risk for unfavorable child outcomes.
“Paternal perinatal depression influences the father–child relationship and is related to less optimal relationships between couples as well as to maternal depression (Paulson et al., 2016), doubling the risk for unfavorable child outcomes.”
From Birth of a Father: Fathering in the First 1,000 Days (2019) · cites this paper as Paulson et al., 2016
The Abstract links paternal depression to impairments in parenting and increased risks for children. The Results and Discussion link paternal depression to maternal depressive symptoms. The paper does not establish less optimal couple relationships or a doubling of risk for unfavorable child outcomes; its reported 4.16 odds ratio concerns worsening maternal symptoms, not child outcomes. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe prevalence of perinatal depression in fathers is 4-10%.
“The prevalence of perinatal depression in fathers is 4–10% (Paulson, Bazemore, Goodman, & Leiferman, 2016)”
From Birth of a Father: Fathering in the First 1,000 Days (2019) · cites this paper as Paulson et al., 2016
The Discussion gives a national estimate of 10% for fathers, supporting the upper end of the claimed range. It does not give a 4% estimate or state a 4–10% range; the study’s own prenatal rate was 20.5% in an oversampled group. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)
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“Fourth, longitudinal designs are essential for understanding changes in parental well-being during the peripartum period, as noted, among others, by Paulson et al. and Philpott et al. [52,53].”
- Authors
- Paulson, J. F., Bazemore, S. D., Goodman, J. H., & Leiferman, J. A.
- Affiliations
- Old Dominion University (US)
- Duke Medical Center (US)
- MGH Institute of Health Professions (US)
- Colorado School of Public Health (US)
- Corresponding author
- Paulson, James F.
- Venue
- Archives of Women s Mental Health
- Published
- 2016-01-20
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 655-663
- ISSN
- 1434-1816 (ISSN-L)
- 1435-1102
- PMC
- PMC4957140
- OpenAlex
- W2289157197
- Cited by
- 158
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 3
- FWCI
- 13.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Archives of Women s Mental Health (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- ODU Digital Commons (Old Dominion University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (1R21HD060942)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Maternal and Neonatal Healthcare
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Pharmacy › Infant Health and Development
- Keywords
- perinatal depression, paternal depression, maternal depression, antenatal depression, postpartum depression, course of depression, intergenerational transmission of depression, symptom severity
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Depression, Female, Humans, Parents, Postnatal Care, Pregnancy, Pregnancy Trimester, Third, Young Adult, Self Report
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