Animating the Carbon Cycle
Open accessAbstract
Understanding the biogeochemical processes regulating carbon cycling is central to mitigating atmospheric CO₂ emissions. The role of living organisms has been accounted for, but the focus has traditionally been on contributions of plants and microbes. We develop the case that fully “animating” the carbon cycle requires broader consideration of the functional role of animals in mediating biogeochemical processes and quantification of their effects on carbon storage and exchange among terrestrial and aquatic reservoirs and the atmosphere. To encourage more hypothesis-driven experimental research that quantifies animal effects we discuss the mechanisms by which animals may affect carbon exchanges and storage within and among ecosystems and the atmosphere. We illustrate how those mechanisms lead to multiplier effects whose magnitudes may rival those of more traditional carbon storage and exchange rate estimates currently used in the carbon budget. Many animal species are already directly managed. Thus improved quantitative understanding of their influence on carbon budgets may create opportunity for management and policy to identify and implement new options for mitigating CO₂ release at regional scales.
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The degree of precision and accuracy in our estimates is on par with estimates of other sources and fates of carbon in the global carbon budget, giving reasonable approximations of direction and order of magnitude.
“Nevertheless, the degree of precision and accuracy in our estimates are on par with estimates of other sources and fates of carbon in the global carbon budget (Schmitz et al. 2014) and therefore give reasonable approximations of the potential direction and order of magnitude of the impact that wolves may once have had on boreal forest and grassland carbon cycling (Fig. 1).”
From Effects of gray wolf‐induced trophic cascades on ecosystem carbon cycling (2016) · cites this paper as Schmitz et al. 2014
In “Estimation of Moose effects” (page unavailable), the paper says its boreal-carbon estimate compares favourably with an independent forest-inventory estimate, offering limited support for the reliability of an animal-related carbon estimate. It does not assess the precision or accuracy of the citing authors’ wolf-impact estimates or establish that those estimates are on par with estimates of other sources and fates of carbon in the global budget. (LLM, conf=0.77)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIntact boreal forest currently covers 1.89 × 10^6 km^2 of North America.
“Intact boreal forest currently covers 1.89 × 10 6 km 2 of North America (Schmitz et al. 2014).”
From Effects of gray wolf‐induced trophic cascades on ecosystem carbon cycling (2016) · cites this paper as Schmitz et al. 2014
The ‘Estimation of Moose effects’ section gives 1.89 × 10^6 km² as the area of 90–100% intact boreal forest in Canada. Canada is in North America, but the passage does not establish that figure as the total for North America. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSoil respiration estimates are 3.25 and 3.875 × 10^4 g C·km−2·yr−1 with and without wolves, respectively.
“We linearly interpolated the reported soil respiration rates assuming moose densities that ranged from 0.5 to 1.5 moose/km 2 (mcInnes et al. 1992, Schmitz et al. 2014) to yield the estimates of soil respiration of 3.25 and 3.875 × 10 4 g C•km -2 •yr -1 with and without wolves, respectively.”
From Effects of gray wolf‐induced trophic cascades on ecosystem carbon cycling (2016) · cites this paper as Schmitz et al. 2014
In 'Estimation of Moose effects' (page not available), the source gives low and high moose densities of about 0.5 and 1.5 moose/km² and reports soil respiration estimates of 2.54 and 3.43 × 10⁴ g C·km⁻²·yr⁻¹. It does not give the citing authors’ interpolated values of 3.25 and 3.875 × 10⁴ or assign those values to conditions with and without wolves. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMoose respiration rates are 5.2 × 10^5 g C·km−2·yr−2 with wolves and 8 × 10^5 g C·km−2·yr−1 without wolves.
“Assuming a conversion of 41 KJ/g C (see Appendix A in Supplemental material in Schmitz et al. 2014), this leads to moose respiration rates of 5.2 × 10 5 g C•km -2 •yr -2 with wolves and 8 × 10 5 g C•km -2 •yr -1 without wolves.”
From Effects of gray wolf‐induced trophic cascades on ecosystem carbon cycling (2016) · cites this paper as Schmitz et al. 2014
In boreal forest, wolves indirectly increase carbon uptake in net primary productivity (NPP) by 24.5-52.5 g C·m−2·yr−1.
“Trees are comprised of approximately 50% carbon (Schmitz et al. 2014); thus, wolves indirectly increase the carbon uptake in NPP by 24.5-52.5 g C•m -2 •yr -1 in boreal forest.”
From Effects of gray wolf‐induced trophic cascades on ecosystem carbon cycling (2016) · cites this paper as Schmitz et al. 2014
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Status and Ecological Effects of the World’s Largest Carnivores
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Self-citationMarine reserves can mitigate and promote adaptation to climate change
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Self-citationCTFS ‐Forest GEO : a worldwide network monitoring forests in an era of global change
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Overcoming the coupled climate and biodiversity crises and their societal impacts
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Animals and the zoogeochemistry of the carbon cycle
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Self-citationSoil Biodiversity and the Environment
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Insects as drivers of ecosystem processes
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The status and stability of permafrost carbon on the Tibetan Plateau
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The community and ecosystem consequences of intraspecific diversity: a meta‐analysis
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Soil fauna: key to new carbon models
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Biotic interactions mediate soil microbial feedbacks to climate change
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Self-citationPredators help protect carbon stocks in blue carbon ecosystems
Atwood, T. B., Connolly, R. M., Ritchie, E. G., Lovelock, C. E., Heithaus, M. R., Hays, G. C., Fourqurean, J. W., & Macreadie, P. I. (2015) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/nclimate2763 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
Global priorities for national carnivore conservation under land use change
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The importance of Antarctic krill in biogeochemical cycles
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Principles for managing marine ecosystems prone to tipping points
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Self-citationTrophic rewilding can expand natural climate solutions
Schmitz, O. J., Sylvén, M., Atwood, T. B., Bakker, E. S., Berzaghi, F., Brodie, J. F., Cromsigt, J. P. G. M., Davies, A. B., Leroux, S., Schepers, F., et al. (2023) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/s41558-023-01631-6 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Self-citationSynthesizing the effects of large, wild herbivore exclusion on ecosystem function
Forbes, E. S., Cushman, J. H., Burkepile, D. E., Young, T. P., Klope, M., & Young, H. S. (2019) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2435.13376 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Metabolic theory predicts whole-ecosystem properties
Schramski, J. R., Dell, A. I., Grady, J. M., Sibly, R. M., & Brown, J. H. (2015) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1423502112 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Let more big fish sink: Fisheries prevent blue carbon sequestration—half in unprofitable areas
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Metamorphosis Alters Contaminants and Chemical Tracers in Insects: Implications for Food Webs
Kraus, J. M., Walters, D., Wesner, J. S., Stricker, C. A., Schmidt, T. S., & Zuellig, R. E. (2014) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es502970b · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Trophic rewilding as a climate change mitigation strategy?
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Carbon dynamics of river corridors and the effects of human alterations
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Carbon Farming: Prospects and Challenges
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Functional Traits and Trait-Mediated Interactions
Schmitz, O. J., Buchkowski, R. W., Burghardt, K. T., & Donihue, C. M. (2015) · Advances in ecological research/Advances in Ecological Research · doi:10.1016/bs.aecr.2015.01.003 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Self-citationReindeer grazing increases summer albedo by reducing shrub abundance in Arctic tundra
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Food Webs and Ecosystems: Linking Species Interactions to the Carbon Cycle
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A birds-eye view of biological connectivity in mangrove systems
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Whales in the carbon cycle: can recovery remove carbon dioxide?
Pearson, H. C., Savoca, M. S., da Costa, D. P., Lomas, M. W., Molina, R., Pershing, A. J., Smith, C. R., Villaseñor‐Derbez, J. C., Wing, S. R., & Roman, J. (2022) · Trends in Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.tree.2022.10.012 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
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The functional syndrome: linking individual trait variability to ecosystem functioning
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Differential arthropod responses to warming are altering the structure of Arctic communities
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The accelerating influence of humans on mammalian macroecological patterns over the late Quaternary
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Integral functions of marine vertebrates in the ocean carbon cycle and climate change mitigation
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Herbivore Impacts on Carbon Cycling in Boreal Forests
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The CO2‐equivalent balance of freshwater ecosystems is non‐linearly related to productivity
Grasset, C., Sobek, S., Scharnweber, K., Moras, S., Villwock, H., Andersson, S. B. E., Hiller, C., Nydahl, A. C., Chaguaceda, F., Colom, W., et al. (2020) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/gcb.15284 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Predators Shape Sedimentary Organic Carbon Storage in a Coral Reef Ecosystem
Atwood, T. B., Madin, E. M. P., Harborne, A. R., Hammill, E., Luiz, O. J., Ollivier, Q. R., Roelfsema, C., Macreadie, P. I., & Lovelock, C. E. (2018) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2018.00110 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Elephants limit aboveground carbon gains in African savannas
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The importance of coastal gorgonians in the blue carbon budget
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Mammals, freshwater reference states, and the mitigation of climate change
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Self-citationHansen, W. D., Fitzsimmons, R., Olnes, J., & Williams, P. (2020) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2745.13446 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Root herbivory and soil carbon cycling: Shedding “green” light onto a “brown” world
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Effects of gray wolf‐induced trophic cascades on ecosystem carbon cycling
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“Applying our estimates of NEP to the North American boreal forest where gray wolves and moose co- occur yields a gray wolf impact on carbon sequestration of 4.6–9.9 × 1013 g C/yr.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationSavannas are vital but overlooked carbon sinks
Dobson, A., Hopcraft, J. G. C., Mduma, S., Ogutu, J. O., Fryxell, J. M., Anderson, T. M., Archibald, S. A., Lehmann, C. E. R., Poole, J., Caro, T., et al. (2022) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abn4482 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Self-citationConsistent predator-prey biomass scaling in complex food webs
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Loss of grazing by large mammalian herbivores can destabilize the soil carbon pool
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Future Directions in Sea Otter Research and Management
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Hippos ( Hippopotamus amphibius ): The animal silicon pump
Schoelynck, J., Subalusky, A. L., Struyf, E., Dutton, C. L., Unzué-Belmonte, D., de Vijver, B. V., Post, D. M., Rosi, E. J., Meire, P. M., & Frings, P. J. (2019) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aav0395 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
A global synthesis of the effects of biological invasions on greenhouse gas emissions
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Stark, S., Horstkotte, T., Kumpula, J., Olofsson, J., Tømmervik, H., & Turunen, M. T. (2022) · Perspectives in Plant Ecology Evolution and Systematics · doi:10.1016/j.ppees.2022.125716 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Parasite responses to large mammal loss in an African savanna
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An overview of global desertification control efforts: Key challenges and overarching solutions
Ahmed, Z., Dongwei, G. U. I., Abd‐Elmabod, S. K., Murtaza, G., & Ali, S. (2024) · Soil Use and Management · doi:10.1111/sum.13154 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Predator‐induced changes in dissolved organic carbon dynamics
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Climate warming restructures food webs and carbon flow in high-latitude ecosystems
Manlick, P. J., Perryman, N. L., Koltz, A. M., Cook, J. A., & Newsome, S. D. (2024) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/s41558-023-01893-0 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
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Kardol, P., Spitzer, C. M., Gundale, M. J., Nilsson, M., & Wardle, D. A. (2016) · Ecology Letters · doi:10.1111/ele.12635 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Herbivore absence can shift dry heath tundra from carbon source to sink during peak growing season
Min, E., Wilcots, M., Naeem, S., Gough, L., McLaren, J. R., Rowe, R. J., Rastetter, E. B., Boelman, N. T., & Griffin, K. L. (2020) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/abd3d0 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Linking the green and brown worlds through nonconsumptive predator effects
Sitvarin, M. I., Rypstra, A. L., & Harwood, J. D. (2016) · Oikos · doi:10.1111/oik.03190 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
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Atkinson, C. L., & Forshay, K. J. (2021) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2435.13982 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
After the mammoths: The ecological legacy of late Pleistocene megafauna extinctions
Smith, F. A., Smith, E. A. E., Hedberg, C. P., Lyons, S. K., Pardi, M. I., & Tomé, C. P. (2023) · Cambridge Prisms Extinction · doi:10.1017/ext.2023.6 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
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Predator community composition is linked to soil carbon retention across a human land use gradient
Schmitz, O. J., Buchkowski, R. W., Smith, J. R., Telthorst, M., & Rosenblatt, A. E. (2017) · Ecology · doi:10.1002/ecy.1794 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
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Rewiring the Carbon Cycle: A Theoretical Framework for Animal‐Driven Ecosystem Carbon Sequestration
Rizzuto, M., Leroux, S., & Schmitz, O. J. (2024) · Journal of Geophysical Research Biogeosciences · doi:10.1029/2024jg008026 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationZahorec, A., Reid, M. L., Tiemann, L. K., & Landis, D. A. (2021) · GCB Bioenergy · doi:10.1111/gcbb.12903 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
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Under‐ice plankton community response to snow removal experiment in bog lake
Socha, E., Gorsky, A. L., Lottig, N. R., Gerrish, G. A., Whitaker, E. C., & Dugan, H. A. (2023) · Limnology and Oceanography · doi:10.1002/lno.12319 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Ayllón, D., Grimm, V., Attinger, S., Hauhs, M., Simmer, C., Vereecken, H., & Lischeid, G. (2017) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.007 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Letter: Trophic interactions regulate peatland carbon cycling
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Top‐down control of methane emission and nitrogen cycling by waterfowl
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The significance and management of natural carbon stores in the open ocean
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A Toolkit for Ecosystem Ecologists in the Time of Big Science
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Integrating policy and ecology systems to achieve path dependent climate solutions
Yona, L., Cashore, B. W., & Schmitz, O. J. (2019) · Environmental Science & Policy · doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2019.03.013 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-citationVuorinen, K., Kolstad, A. L., Vriendt, L. D., Austrheim, G., Tremblay, J., Solberg, E. J., & Speed, J. D. M. (2020) · Ecology · doi:10.1002/ecy.3159 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Context matters when rewilding for climate change
Burak, M. K., Ferraro, K. M., Orrick, K. D., Sommer, N. R., Ellis‐Soto, D., & Schmitz, O. J. (2024) · People and Nature · doi:10.1002/pan3.10609 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-citationTop-down consumptive and trait-mediated control do affect soil food webs: It’s time for a new model
Buchkowski, R. W. (2016) · Soil Biology and Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2016.06.033 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Wing, S. R., Wing, L. C., Shatova, O., & Hale, R. V. (2016) · Marine Ecology Progress Series · doi:10.3354/meps11978 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Consumer regulation of the carbon cycle in coastal wetland ecosystems
He, Q., Li, H., Xu, C., Sun, Q., Bertness, M. D., Fang, C., Li, B., & Silliman, B. R. (2020) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2019.0451 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Roy, A. N., Gough, L., Boelman, N. T., Rowe, R. J., Griffin, K. L., & McLaren, J. R. (2022) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2435.14127 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Turner, D. P., Ritts, W. D., Kennedy, R. E., Gray, A. N., & Yang, Z. (2015) · Carbon Balance and Management · doi:10.1186/s13021-015-0022-9 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Treby, S., & Grover, S. (2023) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119034 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Trophic‐level dependent effects on CO2 emissions from experimental stream ecosystems
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Moreira, R. A., Rocha, O., dos Santos, R. M., Dias, E. S., Moreira, F. W. A., & Eskinazi-Sant’Anna, E. M. (2016) · Oecologia Australis · doi:10.4257/oeco.2016.2002.06 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
- Authors
- Schmitz, O. J., Raymond, P. A., Estes, J. A., Kurz, W. A., Holtgrieve, G. W., Ritchie, M. E., Schindler, D. E., Spivak, A. C., Wilson, R. W., Bradford, M. A., Christensen, V., Deegan, L., Smetacek, V., Vanni, M. J., & Wilmers, C. C.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- University of California, Santa Cruz (US)
- Canadian Forest Service (CA)
- University of Washington (US)
- Syracuse University (US)
- Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (US)
- University of Exeter (GB)
- Marine Biological Laboratory (US)
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung (DE)
- Miami University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Schmitz, Oswald J.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Ecosystems
- Published
- 2013-09-19
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 344-359
- ISSN
- 1432-9840 (ISSN-L)
- 1435-0629
- OpenAlex
- W2007742376
- Cited by
- 236
- References
- 86
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 11
- FWCI
- 24.63
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Ecosystems (publishedVersion)
- Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar-und Meeresforschung (Alfred-Wegener-Institut) (acceptedVersion)
- Open Research Exeter (University of Exeter) (submittedVersion)
- Open Access Server of the Woods Hole Scientific Community (Woods Hole Scientific Community) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Yale University
- Directorate for Biological Sciences
- Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BB/F009364/1)
- Natural Environment Research Council (NE/H010041/1)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Dynamics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Land Use and Ecosystem Services
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Ecology and biodiversity studies
- Keywords
- carbon cycle, carbon storage, carbon exchange, terrestrial ecosystems, aquatic ecosystems, atmospheric CO2, carbon balance, multiplier effect, animal management, climate change mitigation policy
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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