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The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule—Toddler Module: A New Module of a Standardized Diagnostic Measure for Autism Spectrum Disorders
Open accessAbstract
The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS; Lord et al., J Autism Dev Disord, 30(3):205-223, 2000) is widely accepted as a "gold standard" diagnostic instrument, but it is of restricted utility with very young children. The purpose of the current project was to modify the ADOS for use in children under 30 months of age. A modified ADOS, the ADOS Toddler Module (or Module T), was used in 360 evaluations. Participants included 182 children with best estimate diagnoses of ASD, non-spectrum developmental delay or typical development. A final set of protocol and algorithm items was selected based on their ability to discriminate the diagnostic groups. The traditional algorithm "cutoffs" approach yielded high sensitivity and specificity, and a new range of concern approach was proposed.
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“Such developmental trajectories might be a more meaningful phenotype on which to map aetiological mechanisms than a static case-control dichotomy 70,139,140”
From Autism spectrum disorder (2020) · cites this paper as [139]
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“Third, although deficits and delays in children who will develop autism can be documented on a group level, diagnosing individual children with ASD prior to age 15-18 months is very difficult (Luyster et al. 2009, Zwaigenbaum et al. 2005).”
From Recent Advances in Autism Research as Reflected in DSM-5 Criteria for Autism Spectrum Disorder (2015) · cites this paper as Luyster et al. 2009
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Citations
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ADOS-2 Toddler and Module 1 standardized severity scores as used by community practitioners
Hedley, D., Nevill, R. E. A., Uljarević, M., Butter, E. M., & Mulick, J. A. (2016) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2016.09.005 · Cited by 21
Jan, R. K., Rihs, T. A., Kojovic, N., Sperdin, H. F., Franchini, M., Custo, A., Tomescu, M. I., Michel, C. M., & Schaer, M. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00582 · Cited by 22
Autism Screening in Early Childhood: Discriminating Autism From Other Developmental Concerns
Brewer, N., Young, R. L., & Lucas, C. A. (2020) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2020.594381 · Cited by 21
Chawarska, K., Lewkowicz, D. J., Feiner, H., Macari, S. L., & Vernetti, A. (2022) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13595 · Cited by 20
“All infants underwent a comprehensive diagnostic assessment capturing their developmental and medical history, verbal and nonverbal skills (Mullen Scales of Early Learning; MSEL) (Mullen, 1995), adaptive skills (Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales; VABS) (Sparrow, Balla, & Cicchetti, 1984), and severity of autism sympto…”
BackgroundDay, T. N., Northrup, J. B., & Mazefsky, C. A. (2022) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-022-05536-9 · Cited by 20
“As part of their participation in the FIRST WORDS® Project, all children also completed a diagnostic evaluation between 18 and 26 months to determine best estimate diagnosis, including the ADOS-2 Toddler Module (Luyster et al., 2009) and MSEL (Mullen, 1995).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialHustyi, K. M., Ryan, A., & Hall, S. S. (2022) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2022.102074 · Cited by 22
Early Predictors of ASD in Young Children Using a Nationally Representative Data Set
Jeans, L. M., Santos, R. M., Laxman, D. J., McBride, B. A., & Dyer, W. J. (2013) · Journal of Early Intervention · doi:10.1177/1053815114523319 · Cited by 20
Parent Training and Therapy in Children with Autism
Frolli, A., Bosco, A., DiCarmine, F., Cavallaro, A., Lombardi, A., Sergi, L., Corrivetti, G., & Ricci, M. (2021) · Pediatric Reports · doi:10.3390/pediatric13020030 · Cited by 18
“The inclusion criteria were as follows: (a) age less than 30 months at the time of diagnosis, (b) absence of other neurological, genetic or sensorineural pathologies (anamnesis, neurological examination and collection of instrumental investigations carried out) and (c) level 1 of severity obtained through the evaluati…”
MethodPrenatal Influenza Vaccination or Influenza Infection and Autism Spectrum Disorder in Offspring
Becerra-Culqui, T. A., Getahun, D., Chiu, V. Y., Sy, L. S., & Tseng, H. F. (2022) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/cid/ciac101 · Cited by 19
Kim, S. Y., Oh, M., Bong, G., Song, D., Yoon, N., Kim, J. H., & Yoo, H. J. (2022) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-022-00506-5 · Cited by 19
“’s [40] cutoff point for Toddler Module.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMorrel, J., Singapuri, K., Landa, R. J., & Reetzke, R. (2023) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2023.1211676 · Cited by 24
Empirisch überprüfte Frühfördermethoden bei autistischen Störungen
Freitag, C. M. (2010) · Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie · doi:10.1024/1422-4917/a000043 · Cited by 19
McDaniel, J., Yoder, P. J., Estes, A. M., & Rogers, S. J. (2020) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2020_jslhr-19-00281 · Cited by 20
“For inclusion, participants had to be 13–30 months of age at study entry, meet the criteria for ASD on multiple measures (i.e., Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition [American Psychiatric Association, 2013], Autism Diagnostic Interview–Revised [Lord et al., 1994], and Autism Diagnostic O…”
BackgroundImplementation of Early Achievements for Childcare Providers: A cluster-randomized controlled trial
Feuerstein, J. L., & Landa, R. (2020) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2020.06.006 · Cited by 17
Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) and Its Uses in Research and Practice
Hurwitz, S., & Yirmiya, N. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-4788-7_16 · Cited by 19
Petruzzelli, M. G., Matera, E., Margari, L., Marzulli, L., Gabellone, A., Cotugno, C., Annecchini, F., & Cortese, S. (2025) · Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/14737175.2025.2599856 · Cited by 18
“A prominent example of diagnostic complexity is the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) [62].”
Shulman, C., Rice, C. E., Morrier, M. J., & Esler, A. (2020) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.chc.2020.01.002 · Cited by 19
Self-citationAAC and Autism: Manual Signs and Pecs, a Comparison
Frolli, A., Ciotola, S., Esposito, C., Fraschetti, S., Ricci, M. C., Cerciello, F., & Russo, M. G. (2022) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs12100359 · Cited by 20
“Finally, there is no homogeneity in the scientific literature in comparisons of different types of AAC such as PECS and MS [10].”
BackgroundBabu, P. R. K., Aikat, V., Martino, J. M. D., Chang, Z., Perochon, S., Espinosa, S., Aiello, R. E., Carpenter, K. L. H., Compton, S. N., Davis, N. O., et al. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-34293-7 · Cited by 19
Efficacy of Early Intervention Programmes: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Gómez-Cotilla, R., López-de-Uralde-Selva, M. D. L. Á., & Aguayo, L. V. (2023) · Psicologí a Educativa · doi:10.5093/psed2024a1 · Cited by 18
Conti, E., Chericoni, N., Costanzo, V., Lasala, R., Mancini, A., Prosperi, M., Tancredi, R., Muratori, F., Calderoni, S., & Apicella, F. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.565999 · Cited by 20
Jones, D. R., Dallman, A., Harrop, C., Whitten, A., Pritchett, J., Lecavalier, L., Bodfish, J. W., & Boyd, B. A. (2022) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-021-04965-2 · Cited by 18
Stability of early risk assessment for autism spectrum disorder in preterm infants
Yaari, M., Yitzhak, N., Harel‐Gadassi, A., Friedlander, E., Bar‐Oz, B., Eventov‐Friedman, S., Mankuta, D., Seidman, I., & Yirmiya, N. (2016) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361315614758 · Cited by 21
“This study addresses this by utilizing the AOSI as an observer-based screener for ASD risk in preterm infants during the first year of life and the ADOS-T (Luyster et al., 2009) for ASD risk assessment at 18 months.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAmbridge, B., Bannard, C., & Jackson, G. H. (2015) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2487-5 · Cited by 18
New Assessments and Treatments in ASD
Choueiri, R., & Zimmerman, A. W. (2017) · Current Treatment Options in Neurology · doi:10.1007/s11940-017-0443-8 · Cited by 17
Ronkin, E. G., Tully, E. C., Lee, B.-M., Cohen, L., Hall, C., Dilly, L. J., & Tone, E. (2021) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613211047070 · Cited by 15
“The percentages of exact agreement on individual items level were all above 74% (Luyster et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMcGinnis, E. W., Scism, J., Hruschak, J. L., Muzik, M., Rosenblum, K. L., Fitzgerald, K. D., Copeland, W., & McGinnis, R. S. (2021) · IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics · doi:10.1109/jbhi.2021.3053846 · Cited by 19
Lee, K. S., Chung, S. J., Thomas, H., Park, J., & Kim, S. H. (2019) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2125 · Cited by 16
“These results are comparable with the results obtained from the original validation samples in the United States [Gotham et al., 2007; Luyster et al., 2009].”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialA Multistate Trial of an Early Surveillance Program for Autism Within General Practices in Australia
Barbaro, J., Masi, A., Gilbert, M., Nair, R., Abdullahi, I., Descallar, J., Dissanayake, C., Eastwood, J. G., Hasan, I., Jalaludin, B. B., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Pediatrics · doi:10.3389/fped.2021.640359 · Cited by 16
Characterizing difficulties with emotion regulation in toddlers with autism spectrum disorder
Day, T. N., Mazefsky, C. A., & Wetherby, A. M. (2022) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2022.101992 · Cited by 22
Wang, X., Delgado, J., Marchesotti, S., Kojovic, N., Sperdin, H. F., Rihs, T. A., Schaer, M., & Giraud, A. (2023) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0112-22.2023 · Cited by 19
Wagner, L., Vehorn, A. C., Weitlauf, A. S., Lavanderos, A. M., Wade, J. W., Corona, L. L., & Warren, Z. E. (2023) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-023-06176-3 · Cited by 22
“This database includes data from comprehensive, in-person evaluations [scores on the ADOS-2 (Lord et al., 2012; Luyster et al., 2009), cognitive assessment data (Mullen, 1995), adaptive behavior scores (Sparrow et al., 2005), and clinical best estimate diagnosis from the psychological provider…”
Lexical Characteristics of Expressive Vocabulary in Toddlers With Autism Spectrum Disorder
Kover, S. T., & Weismer, S. E. (2014) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2014_jslhr-l-13-0006 · Cited by 17
“Assessments included the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS; Lord, Rutter, DiLavore, & Risi, 2002) or the ADOS-Toddler Module (ADOS-T; Luyster et al., 2009) and the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R; Rutter, Le Couteur, & Lord, 2003).”
MethodChawarska, K., Macari, S. L., Volkmar, F. R., Kim, S. H., & Shic, F. (2014) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118911389.hautc05 · Cited by 16
Computer vision tools for the non-invasive assessment of autism-related behavioral markersPreprint
Hashemi, J., Spina, T. V., Tepper, M., Esler, A., Morellas, V., Papanikolopoulos, N. P., & Sapiro, G. (2012) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1210.7014 · Cited by 16
“Keywords and phrases: Autism, Behavioral Markers, Infants and Toddlers, Computer Vision, Visual Attention, Human Pose Estimation.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationFace-based machine learning diagnostics: applications, challenges and opportunities
Song, J., He, M., Zheng, X., Zhang, Y., Bi, C., Feng, J., Du, J., Li, H., & Shen, B. (2025) · Artificial Intelligence Review · doi:10.1007/s10462-025-11246-2 · Cited by 15
Wilson, R. B., Burdekin, E. D., JACKSON, N. J., Hughart, L., Anderson, J., Dusing, S. C., Gulsrud, A. C., & Kasari, C. L. (2023) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.3067 · Cited by 15
“Evaluation for autism symptoms was completed using The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-Toddler Version (ADOS-T; Luyster et al., 2009).”
MethodNew eye tracking metrics system: the value in early diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder
Wang, R. K., Kwong, K. K., Liu, K., & Kong, X. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1518180 · Cited by 16
Feldman, J. I., Garla, V., Dunham, K., Markfeld, J. E., Bowman, S. M., Golden, A. J., Daly, C., Kaiser, S., Mailapur, N., Raj, S. V., et al. (2022) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-022-05817-3 · Cited by 20
“This assessment included a research reliable administration of the ADOS-2 toddler module (Luyster et al., 2009) and a caregiver interview.”
Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule
Carr, T. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-91280-6_896 · Cited by 15
Masi, A., Dissanayake, C., Alach, T., Cameron, K., Fordyce, K., Frost, G., Grove, R., Heussler, H., Silove, N., Sulek, R., et al. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-047290 · Cited by 14
Wu, X., Lin, F., Sun, W., Zhang, T., Sun, H., & Li, J. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11111467 · Cited by 13
“The diagnosis of ASD is currently based on behavioral observations, e.g., via the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) [4,5], which relies on individuals who manifest consistent behaviors and habitual patterns, since inconsistent behaviors (such as those usually shown in younger children) may affect the diagn…”
MethodInfluentialShic, F., Barney, E. C., Naples, A. J., Dommer, K. J., Chang, S. A., Li, B., McAllister, T., Atyabi, A., Wang, Q., Bernier, R., et al. (2023) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.3026 · Cited by 15
“One of the core features of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in infancy and early childhood is limited attention to faces and gaze of social partners (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Luyster et al., 2009).”
BackgroundZheng, R. M., Chan, S. P., Law, E. C. N., Chong, S. C., & Aishworiya, R. (2023) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613231205748 · Cited by 14
“The ADOS-2 Toddler Module (ADOS-T) is intended for use in children below 30 months of age, with at least a nonverbal age equivalent of 12 months of age and who are walking independently (Luyster et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMethodThe management of neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) in children and adolescents
Kerashvili, N., & Gutmann, D. H. (2024) · Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/14737175.2024.2324117 · Cited by 14
“In addition, concerns about social perception and social functioning should be discussed, and evaluation for early signs or features of autism spectrum disorder initiated using standardized tools (e.g. ADOS-2, CARS-2) [94– 96].”
MethodSchertz, H. H., Call-Cummings, M., Horn, K., Quest, K., & Law, R. S. (2017) · Journal of Early Intervention · doi:10.1177/1053815117737353 · Cited by 18
“Social and instrumental communicative functions are differentiated in assessments tailored for toddlers with autism (Grzadzinski et al., 2016; Luyster et al., 2009; Mundy et al., 2003; Schertz, 2005), with both functions occurring in initiating and responding forms.”
BackgroundAutism spectrum disorder in primary care
Weill, V. A., Jackson, S. Z., & Souders, M. C. (2018) · The Nurse Practitioner · doi:10.1097/01.npr.0000529670.62188.1a · Cited by 14
Lorenzo, G. D., Riccioni, A., Ribolsi, M., Siracusano, M., Curatolo, P., & Mazzone, L. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.555340 · Cited by 17
Chericoni, N., Balboni, G., Costanzo, V., Mancini, A., Prosperi, M., Lasala, R., Tancredi, R., Scattoni, M. L., on behalf of the NIDA Network, Molteni, M., et al. (2021) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04838-0 · Cited by 14
Klintwall, L., Macari, S. L., Eikeseth, S., & Chawarska, K. (2014) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361314555376 · Cited by 15
“We applied this scoring system to video recordings of the ADOS-T (Luyster et al., 2009).”
MethodPaula, C. S., da Cunha, G. R., Bordini, D., Brunoni, D., Moya, A. C., Bosa, C. A., Mari, J. D. J., & Cogo‐Moreira, H. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3440-6 · Cited by 14
Xu, L., Guo, Y., Li, J., Yu, J., & Xu, H. (2020) · Biomedical Signal Processing and Control · doi:10.1016/j.bspc.2020.101958 · Cited by 13
Scientific challenges in developing biological markers for autism
Hewitson, L. C. (2013) · OA Autism · doi:10.13172/2052-7810-1-1-474 · Cited by 13
Venker, C. E., Kover, S. T., & Weismer, S. E. (2015) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2644-x · Cited by 13
“…were determined at study entry (mean age 2 ) using all available information, including the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised or toddler research version (Rutter et al. 2003) and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS; Lord et al. 2002) or ADOS Toddler Module (Luyster et al. 2009).”
MethodSymptoms of autism spectrum disorder and developmental delay in children with low mental age
Thomas, R. P., Milan, S., Naigles, L., Robins, D. L., Barton, M. L., Adamson, L. B., & FEIN, D. A. (2021) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2021.1998634 · Cited by 15
“Finally, we investigated whether the ADOS-2 Toddler Module can classify children with mental ages below 12 months as having ASD, even though their developmental level is lower than the recommended nonverbal mental age of 12 months (Esler et al., 2015; Luyster et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSergi, L., Mingione, E., Ricci, M. C., Cavallaro, A., Russo, F., Corrivetti, G., Operto, F. F., & Frolli, A. (2021) · Pediatric Reports · doi:10.3390/pediatric13010005 · Cited by 12
“The protocol implemented consisted of the following tests: ADOS 2—Toddler Module (Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule) [19], ADI-R (Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised) [20] and VABS II (Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales II) [21].”
MethodRiccioni, A., Siracusano, M., Vasta, M., Ribolsi, M., Nastro, F. F., Gialloreti, L. E., Lorenzo, G. D., & Mazzone, L. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.950888 · Cited by 11
Resting‐state coupling between HbO and Hb measured by fNIRS in autism spectrum disorder
Lin, F., Hu, Y., Huang, W., Wu, X., Sun, H., & Li, J. (2022) · Journal of Biophotonics · doi:10.1002/jbio.202200265 · Cited by 11
Tigga, N. P., Garg, S., Goyal, N., Raj, J. P. C., & Das, B. (2024) · Technology and Health Care · doi:10.3233/thc-240550 · Cited by 11
Iao, L., Yu, W.-H., & Wu, C. (2019) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2019.101477 · Cited by 11
Cibralic, S., Kohlhoff, J. R., Wallace, N. M., McMahon, C. A., & Eapen, V. (2020) · Clinical Case Studies · doi:10.1177/1534650120969854 · Cited by 14
“…87% to 97% inter-rater agreement for diagnostic classification); satisfactory test-retest reliability (correlation coefficients ranged from 0.66 to 0.88; Luyster et al., 2009) and good content, construct validity and predicative validity (sensitivity and specificity < 86 %; Lord et al., 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialKong, X., Sherman, H. T., Tian, R., Koh, M., Liu, S., Li, A., & Stone, W. S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.737890 · Cited by 11
Jones, M. K., Sone, B. J., Grauzer, J. M., Sudec, L., Kaat, A. J., & Roberts, M. Y. (2023) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613231213283 · Cited by 11
“The ADOS-2 was chosen to confirm or determine the child’s diagnostic status, given the measure’s diagnostic accuracy (Lebersfeld et al., 2021), as indicated by high sensitivity (0.88) and specificity (0.91) for this age group (Luyster et al., 2009).”
MethodInfluentialSocial complexity and the early social environment affect visual social attention to faces
Tsang, T., Johnson, S. P., Jeste, S., & Dapretto, M. (2019) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2060 · Cited by 11
“The correlation between ADOS-T SA and facelooking was significant for HR infants, over and above the effects of cognitive level (r = −0.319, P = 0.048), but not for LR infants.”
MethodInfluentialProsperi, M., Santocchi, E., Brunori, E., Cosenza, A., Tancredi, R., Muratori, F., & Calderoni, S. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13093046 · Cited by 11
“ASD diagnosis was performed by a multidisciplinary team (a senior child psychiatrist, an experienced clinically trained research child psychologist, an educational therapist, and a speechlanguage pathologist) during 5–7 days of extensive evaluation, including the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-Second Edition (…”
David, D. O., Baxter, P. E., Belpaeme, T., Billing, E., Cai, H., Cao, H.-L., Ciocan, A., Costescu, C. A., García, D. H., Esteban, P. G., et al. (2025) · Science Robotics · doi:10.1126/scirobotics.adl2266 · Cited by 10
Bang, J. Y., & Nadig, A. (2020) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2020.100847 · Cited by 10
Юрьевна, Д. Е., & Sorokin, A. B. (2017) · Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.17759/autdd.2017150204 · Cited by 10
Luu, J., Jellett, R., Yaari, M., Gilbert, M., & Barbaro, J. (2020) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2020.597505 · Cited by 10
Barbaro, J., & Freeman, N. C. (2021) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2021.101745 · Cited by 14
Validity of Vocal Communication and Vocal Complexity in Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
McDaniel, J., Yoder, P. J., Estes, A. M., & Rogers, S. J. (2019) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-019-04248-x · Cited by 10
Chen, L., Liu, J., Kang, J. B., Rosenberg‐Lee, M., Abrams, D. A., & Menon, V. (2024) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613231223354 · Cited by 9
“Previous studies have consistently shown that autistic children exhibit a wide range of cognitive strengths and challenges (Chen et al., 2019; Fountain et al., 2012; Gotham et al., 2009, 2012; Jones et al., 2009; Kjelgaard & Tager-Flusberg, 2001; Norbury & Nation, 2011; Wei et al., 2015).”
BackgroundMethodResultGulsrud, A. C., Shih, W., Paparella, T., & Kasari, C. L. (2024) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2024.101952 · Cited by 10
Prescott, K. E., & Weismer, S. E. (2021) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-021-05098-2 · Cited by 8
Valoración de Signos de Alarma en Autismo entre los 9 y los 16 Meses de Edad
de León, A. S., & Garrido, C. R. (2012) · Psicologí a Educativa · doi:10.5093/ed2012a15 · Cited by 9
“Esta demora en la emisión de un juicio diagnóstico condiciona, en la mayoría de los casos, el inicio de la intervención y el pronóstico de las personas que presentan este tipo de trastornos (Woods y Wetherby, 2003; Luyster et al., 2009).”
BackgroundAutism and neurodevelopmental disability risks in children with tracheostomies and ventilators
Sobotka, S. A., Lynch, E., Liao, C., Graham, R. J., & Msall, M. E. (2024) · Pediatric Pulmonology · doi:10.1002/ppul.26921 · Cited by 8
“ASD is typically not diagnosed before age 12 months, which coincides with the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule threshold, 12 and ID is typically not diagnosed until later childhood when IQ can be combined with measures of adaptive functioning.”
BackgroundDeep Multi-Instance Conv-Transformer Frameworks for Landmark-Based Brain MRI Classification
Li, G., Ji, Z., & Sun, Q. (2024) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics13050980 · Cited by 8
“Many neuroscience studies of children and young adults with ASD have shown patterns of structural and developmental abnormalities in the amygdala [4], hippocampus [4–6], precentral gyrus [7,8], and anterior cingulate gyrus [6].”
Lob, K., Sawka, D. M., Gaitanis, J. N., Liu, J. S.-H., & Nie, D. A. (2024) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-024-06512-1 · Cited by 8
“The inclusion criteria were ages 1–18 years old (Luyster et al., 2009; Pierce et al., 2019), an ASD diagnosis (ICD-10 code F.84) and the result of at least one genetic test in the EMR.”
Anderson, J. T., Stenum, J., Roemmich, R. T., & Wilson, R. B. (2025) · Frontiers in Digital Health · doi:10.3389/fdgth.2025.1542012 · Cited by 10
Gunderson, J. A., Howie, F. R., Mehta, S., Redlin, A., & Huebner, A. R. (2025) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-025-06778-z · Cited by 8
“…module, for children under 30 months, shows evidence of strong internal consistency (α = 0.90 for SA; α = 0.5 for RRB) and inter-rater reliability (kappa = 0.60) as well as sensitivity between 0.81–0.91 and specificity between 0.86–0.94 for verbal and non-verbal children (Luyster et al., 2009).”
InfluentialSterrett, K., Tafolla, M., Gulsrud, A. C., Paparella, T., & Kasari, C. L. (2022) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-022-05616-w · Cited by 9
“Inclusion criteria included: (a) a chronological age between 12 and 21 months at entry into the study; (b) a parent being available for parent-mediated sessions two times per week; and (c) elevated scores on the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule Toddler version (ADOS-T; Luyster et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMethodShifting Preferences for Primate Faces in Neurotypical Infants and Infants Later Diagnosed With ASD
Yamashiro, A., Sorcinelli, A., Rahman, T., Elbogen, R., Curtin, S. L., & Vouloumanos, A. (2018) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2043 · Cited by 8
Shulman, C., Rice, C. E., Morrier, M. J., & Esler, A. (2020) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.psc.2020.08.002 · Cited by 9
Self-citationBuffle, P. L., & Naranjo, D. (2021) · Revista Ecuatoriana de Pediatría · doi:10.52011/113 · Cited by 8
Liu, J., Chang, H., Abrams, D. A., Kang, J. B., Chen, L., Rosenberg‐Lee, M., & Menon, V. (2023) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.86035 · Cited by 16
Sarrett, J. C., & Rommelfanger, K. S. (2015) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2015.00272 · Cited by 9
“Presently, clinicians are unable to reliably diagnose ASD until 12months using the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) Toddler module (11); however, diagnosis usually happens much later.”
MethodDiagnostic Instruments in Autistic Spectrum Disorders
Lord, C., Corsello, C. M., & Grzadzinski, R. (2014) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118911389.hautc25 · Cited by 8
Self-citationThe Comorbidity of ADHD and Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) in Community Preschoolers
Carrascosa-Romero, M. C., & Vega, C. D. C. D. L. (2015) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/61400 · Cited by 8
Multisensory Processing Differences in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Miller, S. H. B., & Wallace, M. T. (2019) · Springer handbook of auditory research · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-10461-0_12 · Cited by 8
Parents’ application of mediated learning principles as predictors of toddler social initiations
Schertz, H. H., Liu, X., Odom, S. L., & Baggett, K. M. (2021) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613211061128 · Cited by 6
“In interactions between parents and toddlers with autism, communicative functions are demonstrated by both partners (Schertz, Call-Cummings, et al., 2018) in expressive and receptive forms (Luyster et al., 2009).”
BackgroundLongitudinal study for the early detection of autism in children with very preterm birth
Soro, M. M., Gisbert, L., Alonso, H. B., Martínez-Maldonado, S., & Coronado, R. (2024) · Brain and Development · doi:10.1016/j.braindev.2024.08.006 · Cited by 7
“The Toddler Module [17] is designed to assess children between 12 and 30 months.”
Lob, K., Hou, T., Chu, T.-C., Ibrahim, N., Bartolini, L., & Nie, D.-Y. A. (2023) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2023.109228 · Cited by 7
Riboldi, E. M., Capelli, E., Cantiani, C., Beretta, C., Molteni, M., & Riva, V. (2023) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613231200081 · Cited by 10
“To evaluate autistic features (Gotham et al., 2009), we used the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-Second Edition (ADOS-2), a semistructured assessment of communication, social interaction, imaginative play, and restricted and repetitive behaviors, designed to detect putative autistic signs…”
MethodFord, A., Walum, H., Brice, B., Patel, H., Kunnikuru, S., Jones, W., Berman, G. J., & Shultz, S. (2024) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2023.2494 · Cited by 6
“Assessments included: the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS; typically ADOS 1 [45], or the Toddler Module [46] or ADOS 2 [47]) to assess social disability, the Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL) [48] to assess developmental level across the Visual Reception, Receptive Language,…”
MethodEarly Detection of Autism Spectrum Disorders
Chuthapisith, J., & Ruangdaragano, N. (2011) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/17482 · Cited by 7
Criterion validity of the Autism Spectrum Rating Scales 2-5 parent report
Camodeca, A., & Walcott, K. (2021) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2021.101820 · Cited by 8
Medical Care in Autism and Related Conditions
Volkmar, F. R., Rowberry, J., deVinck-Baroody, O., Gupta, A. R., Leung, J., Meyers, J., Vaswani, N., & Wiesner, L. (2014) · doi:10.1002/9781118911389.hautc22 · Cited by 7
Irarrázaval, M., López, I., Figueroa, C., Cabezas, M., Yáñez, C., Rodillo, E., Riesle, S., Rivera, T., & García, R. (2023) · Andes pediatrica · doi:10.32641/andespediatr.v94i4.4476 · Cited by 6
Riva, V., Riboldi, E. M., Urbani, B., Molteni, M., & Villa, L. M. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11111381 · Cited by 6
“In this study, we used the ADOS Toddler module [32] to evaluate the severity of ASD symptoms at pre- and post-intervention.”
MethodDinet, J., Verdel, H., Kumazaki, H., Terada, K., Vitel, S., & Zender, E. (2021) · doi:10.1145/3486812.3486840 · Cited by 6
“Typical language learners produce a higher proportion of joint attention than behavior regulation gestures, whereas individuals with ASD show the opposite pattern [18][22].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Luyster, R., Gotham, K., Guthrie, W., Coffing, M., Petrak, R., Pierce, K., Bishop, S., Esler, A., Hus, V., Oti, R., Richler, J., Risi, S., & Lord, C.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- University of Michigan (US)
- University of California San Diego (US)
- University of Wisconsin System (US)
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Corresponding author
- Luyster, Rhiannon
- Venue
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
- Published
- 2009-05-05
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 1305-1320
- ISSN
- 0162-3257 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-3432
- PMC
- PMC2893552
- OpenAlex
- W2022345199
- Cited by
- 468
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 47 · 2020: 36 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 31 · 2014: 18 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 36
- FWCI
- 11.13
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Rutgers University Community Repository (Rutgers University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Simons Foundation
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH066496, F31MH73210-02, R25MH057167, R01MH078165, F32MH066469, R01MH080134, MH066469, F31MH073210, MH57167)
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (U19HD035482, HD-35482-01, P01HD035482)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Child Nutrition and Feeding Issues
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, autism spectrum disorder, toddlers, diagnostic assessment, diagnostic algorithm, cut-off values, sensitivity and specificity, developmental delay, young children
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Algorithms, Attention, Autistic Disorder, Awareness, Developmental Disabilities, Child, Preschool, Diagnosis, Differential, Female, Humans, Infant, Language Development Disorders, Male, Personality Assessment, Pilot Projects, Play and Playthings, Psychometrics, Reference Standards, Social Behavior, Verbal Behavior, Reproducibility of Results
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