The effects of learning two languages on levels of metalinguistic awareness
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to determine whether a bilingual environment-the juxtaposition of two language systems learned simultaneously-enhances children's awareness of the language(s) they are learning to speak. The study explores the development of metalinguistic awareness at three different levels of explicit knowledge about language in monolingual children, and assesses the effects of a bilingual experience on this developmental process. To observe the development of metalinguistic awareness and to test the bilingual hypothesis, we compared metalinguistic skills in 32 Spanish-speaking and 32 English-speaking monolinguals and in 32 Spanish-English bilinguals aged 4:5 to 8:0. The Spanish and English metalinguistic tests each contained 15 different ungrammatical constructions (e.g., "Steven and Robert is a brother") and 15 grammatically correct "fillers." For each item, the children were asked in the appropriate language to note whether the construction was correct or incorrect, to correct the errors they noted, and to explain why those errors were wrong. We found that the monolingual children followed the same sequence in acquiring the ability to detect, to correct, and to explain grammatical errors; in particular, they progressed from a content-based orientation to a form-based orientation to language at each of the three levels. However, we noted different outcomes in terms of the types of grammatical constructions that were easy for monolinguals to master at each level-the constructions that were easy to detect and correct were distinct from those that were easy to explain. The bilingual experience was found to speed the transition from a content-based to a form-based approach to language at certain levels of awareness (detection and correction), but had less of an effect on explanations. Moreover, the bilingual experience did not appear to affect the types of grammatical constructions that were easy to master at any of the three levels. These data suggest that the experience of learning two languages hastens the development of certain metalinguistic skills in young children, but does not alter the course of that development. Thus, while learning two languages may enhance a speaker's "ear" for regularities of form, it does not appear to augment his grammatical "mind" for understanding those regularities.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Bilingual children have an advantage in metalinguistic awareness.
“a significant advantage for bilingual children in their ability to solve linguistic problems based on understanding such concepts as the difference between form and meaning, that is, metalinguistic awareness”
From Bilingualism: consequences for mind and brain (2012) · cites this paper as [18]
Cites
Vygotsky, L. S. (1964) · Bulletin of the Orton Society · doi:10.1007/bf02928399 · Cited by 20,704 · see citing works
Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.127 · Cited by 7,335 · see citing works
A First Language: The Early Stages
Gardner, R., Gardner, B. T., & Brown, R. (1974) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421982 · Cited by 4,205 · see citing works
Acquisition of cognitive skill
Anderson, J. R. (1982) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.89.4.369 · Cited by 3,663 · see citing works
Scribner, S., & Cole, M. (1981) · doi:10.4159/harvard.9780674433014 · Cited by 3,447 · see citing works
Language Acquisition: The State of the Art
Wanner, E., & Gleitman, L. R. (2009) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,022 · see citing works
Explicit syllable and phoneme segmentation in the young child
Liberman, I. Y., Shankweiler, D., Fischer, F. W., & Carter, B. (1974) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-0965(74)90101-5 · Cited by 1,379 · see citing works
The Crosslinguistic Study of Language Acquisition
Byrnes, H., & Slobin, D. I. (1987) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.2307/326492 · Cited by 1,245 · see citing works
Does awareness of speech as a sequence of phones arise spontaneously?
Morais, J., Cary, L., Alegría, J., & Bertelson, P. (1979) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/0010-0277(79)90020-9 · Cited by 1,133 · see citing works
The Crosslinguistic Study of Language Acquisition
(2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315805825 · Cited by 826 · see citing works
From meta-processes to conscious access: Evidence from children's metalinguistic and repair data
Karmiloff‐Smith, A. (1986) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/0010-0277(86)90040-5 · Cited by 720 · see citing works
The acquisition and development of language by bilingual children
Volterra, V., & Taeschner, T. (1978) · Journal of Child Language · doi:10.1017/s0305000900007492 · Cited by 640 · see citing works
Shatz, M. (1981) · Language · doi:10.2307/413708 · Cited by 586 · see citing works
Book Review: Scientific Inquiry and the Social Sciences
Cox, E. P., Brewer, M. B., & Collins, B. E. (1983) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.2307/3151691 · Cited by 543 · see citing works
The Child’s Conception of Language
Sinclair, A., Jarvella, R. J., & Levelt, W. J. M. (1978) · Springer series in language and communication · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-67155-5 · Cited by 504 · see citing works
The Influence of Bilingualism on Cognitive Strategy and Cognitive Development
Ben-Zeev, S. (1977) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1128353 · Cited by 495 · see citing works
Phonological Awareness and Verbal Short-Term Memory
Mann, V. A., & Liberman, I. Y. (1984) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/002221948401701005 · Cited by 434 · see citing works
Susan Goldin-meadow, A., Mylander, C., de Villiers, J., Bates, E. A., & Volterra, V. (1984) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.2307/1165838 · Cited by 386 · see citing works
Lesgold, A. M., Pellegrino, J. W., Fokkema, S. D., & Glaser, R. A. (1978) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-2535-2_32 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
Cooper, C., & Piaget, J. (1979) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.2307/1175746 · Cited by 361 · see citing works
Mechanisms of Cognitive Development
(2001) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410600646 · Cited by 342 · see citing works
Mechanisms Of Cognitive Development
Siegler, R. S. (1989) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.40.1.353 · Cited by 341 · see citing works
Talking to children in Western Samoa
Ochs, E. (1982) · Language in Society · doi:10.1017/s0047404500009040 · Cited by 315 · see citing works
Awareness of Language: Some Evidence from what Children Say and Do
Clark, E. V. (1978) · Springer series in language and communication · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-67155-5_2 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
The Development of Metalinguistic Abilities in Children
Hakes, D. T. (1980) · Springer series in language and communication · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-67761-8 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Beyond the Input Given: The Child's Role in the Acquisition of Language
Goldin-Meadow, S., & Mylander, C. (1990) · Language · doi:10.2307/414890 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Self-citationSyntactic Abilities in Normal and Dyslexic Children
Vogel, S. A. (1974) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/002221947400700211 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
The emergence of the child as grammarian
Gleitman, L. R., Gleitman, H., & Shipley, E. F. (1972) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/0010-0277(72)90016-9 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Language Awareness and Learning to Read
Downing, J., & Valtin, R. (1984) · Springer series in language and communication · doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-8248-5 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Language Development of a Garo and English Speaking Child
Burling, R. (1959) · WORD · doi:10.1080/00437956.1959.11659683 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Subject-specific and task-specific characteristics of metalinguistic awareness in bilingual children
Galambos, S. J., & Hakuta, K. (1988) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716400006780 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Self-citationQuiché Mayan speech to children
Pye, C. L. (1986) · Journal of Child Language · doi:10.1017/s0305000900000313 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Studies in the cognitive basis of language development
Beilin, H., & Lust, B. (1975) · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Early judgments of semantic and syntactic acceptability by children
de Villiers, P. A., & de Villiers, J. G. (1972) · Journal of Psycholinguistic Research · doi:10.1007/bf01067785 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Mann, V. A., Shankweiler, D., & Smith, S. T. (1984) · Journal of Child Language · doi:10.1017/s0305000900005997 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Specific reading disability advances in theory and method
Hécaen, H. (1971) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(71)90034-0 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
The Use of English Morphology by High-Risk and Learning Disabled Children
Wiig, E. H., Semel, E. M., & Crouse, M. A. B. (1973) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/002221947300600708 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Hirsh‐Pasek, K., Gleitman, L. R., & Gleitman, H. (1978) · Springer series in language and communication · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-67155-5_7 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION IN A BILINGUAL CHILD
Padilla, A. M., & Liebman, E. (1975) · Bilingual review/The Bilingual review · Cited by 93 · see citing works
A Case Study of Early Language Awareness
Slobin, D. I. (1978) · Springer series in language and communication · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-67155-5_3 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Miller, P. J. (1982) · University of Texas Press eBooks · doi:10.7560/703575 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Observational Learning of Motives and Consequences for Television Aggression: A Developmental Study
Collins, W. A., Berndt, T. J., & Hess, V. L. (1974) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1127849 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Syntactic awareness and verbal performance from preschool to fifth grade
Bowey, J. A. (1986) · Journal of Psycholinguistic Research · doi:10.1007/bf01067676 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Gleitman, L. R., & Gleitman, H. (1971) · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Levels of comprehension in processing of normal and ambiguous sentences
Mistler-Lachman, J. L. (1972) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(72)80045-8 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Grammaticality judgments and reading skill in grade 2
Fowler, A. E. (1988) · Annals of Dyslexia · doi:10.1007/bf02648249 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Goldin-Meadow, S. (1979) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-746304-9.50010-0 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Self-citationDevelopmental changes in the linguistic performance correlates of reading achievement
Fletcher, J. M., Satz, P., & Scholes, R. J. (1981) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/0093-934x(81)90130-9 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Spoken Sentence Comprehension by Good and Poor Readers: A Study with the Token Test
Smith, S. T., Mann, V. A., & Shankweiler, D. (1986) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/s0010-9452(86)80022-3 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Causes and Functions of Linguistic Awareness in Language Acquisition: Some Introductory Remarks
Levelt, W. J. M., Sinclair, A., & Jarvella, R. J. (1978) · Springer series in language and communication · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-67155-5_1 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Marshall, J., & Morton, J. (1978) · Springer series in language and communication · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-67155-5_12 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Amy, Wendy, and Beth: learning language in South Baltimore
Nemoianu, A. M. (1983) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/0378-2166(83)90029-2 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Children's Awareness of Semantic Constraints in Sentences
James, S. L., & Miller, J. F. (1973) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1127681 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Learning to Attend to Sentence Structure: Links Between Metalinguistic Development and Reading
Ryan, E. B., & Ledger, G. W. (1984) · Springer series in language and communication · doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-8248-5_8 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
A theory of knowledge acquisition in the development of verbal concepts*1
Sternberg, R. J. (1984) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/0273-2297(84)90001-7 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
The development of metalinguistic awareness and its relation to reading achievement
Flood, J., & Menyuk, P. (1983) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/0193-3973(83)90059-x · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Word Order Awareness and Early Reading
Bohannon, J. N., Warren-Leubecker, A., & Hepler, N. A. (1984) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1130024 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Development of Metalinguistic Performance in the Early School Years
Scholl, D. M., & Ryan, E. B. (1980) · Language and Speech · doi:10.1177/002383098002300205 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
The aquisition of semantic restrictions in children
Howe, H. E., & Hillman, D. (1973) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(73)80002-7 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 60 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Going beyond the Native Speaker in Language Teaching
Cook, V. (1999) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.2307/3587717 · Cited by 1,600 · see citing works
Bilingualism: consequences for mind and brain
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Luk, G. (2012) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2012.03.001 · Cited by 1,386 · see citing works
A systematic review and meta-analysis of the cognitive correlates of bilingualism
Adesope, O. O., Lavin, T., Thompson, T., & Ungerleider, C. (2010) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654310368803 · Cited by 1,132 · see citing works
Bilingual experience and executive functioning in young children
Carlson, S. M., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2008) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00675.x · Cited by 1,052 · see citing works
“…to monolingual children (e.g. Bialystok, 1991; Bowey, 1988; Bruck & Genesee, 1995; Campbell & Sais, 1995; Cummins, 1978; Feldman & Shen, 1971; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Gathercole, 1997; Hakes, 1980); and how early bilingual experience impacts children's later linguistic activities,…”
Heritage Languages and Their Speakers
Polinsky, M. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781107252349 · Cited by 721 · see citing works
Third or Additional Language Acquisition
Angelis, G. D. (2007) · Multilingual Matters eBooks · doi:10.21832/9781847690050 · Cited by 538 · see citing works
Murayama, K. M. (2007) · Cited by 477 · see citing works
The cognitive development of young dual language learners: A critical review
Barac, R., Bialystok, E., Castro, D. C., & Sánchez, M. (2014) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.02.003 · Cited by 471 · see citing works
“This conclusion is consistent with research conducted prior to 2000 (Cromdal, 1999; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990).”
ResultDeveloping phonological awareness: Is there a bilingual advantage?
Bialystok, E., Majumder, S., & Martin, M. M. (2003) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s014271640300002x · Cited by 440 · see citing works
Effect of bilingualism on cognitive control in the Simon task: evidence from MEG
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Grady, C. L., Chau, W., Ishii, R., Gunji, A., & Pantev, C. (2004) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.09.044 · Cited by 418 · see citing works
“This processing advantage has been found across several domains of thought, including language tasks (Bialystok, 1988; Cromdal, 1999; Galambos and Goldin-Meadow, 1990 ), concepts of quantity (Bialystok and Codd, 1997; Saxe, 1988), spatial concepts (Bialystok and Majumder, 1998), and problem solving (Kessler and Quinn,…”
BackgroundCognitive Effects of Bilingualism: How Linguistic Experience Leads to Cognitive Change
Bialystok, E. (2007) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.2167/beb441.0 · Cited by 360 · see citing works
“Research comparing monolinguals and bilinguals on metalinguistic tasks reported just such bilingual advantages (Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Galambos & Hakuta, 1988; Ricciardelli, 1992).”
BackgroundEmerging bilingualism: Dissociating advantages for metalinguistic awareness and executive control
Bialystok, E., & Barac, R. (2011) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.08.003 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
“…who are raised with two languages show advantages over monolingual peers in two domains – metalinguistic awareness (Ben-Zeev, 1977; Cummins, 1978; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Galambos & Hakuta, 1988; Ricciardelli, 1992) and nonverbal executive control (Bialystok & Martin, 2004; Bialystok &…”
BackgroundAcquisition of Literacy in Bilingual Children: A Framework for Research
Bialystok, E. (2007) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2007.00412.x · Cited by 344 · see citing works
Sorace, A., Serratrice, L., Filiaci, F., & Baldo, M. (2008) · Lingua · doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2008.09.008 · Cited by 334 · see citing works
“Previous research on the metalinguistic skills of pre-school and school-age bilingual and monolingual children (Galambos and Goldin-Meadow, 1990) has shown that children find it especially difficult to provide grammaticality judgements for sentences where they have to integrate more than one source…”
Bilingual education enhances third language acquisition: Evidence from Catalonia
Sanz, C. (2000) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716400001028 · Cited by 327 · see citing works
“Research by Bialystok (1986, 1987, 1991), Diaz (1985), Galambos and Goldin-Meadow (1990), Yelland, Pollard, and Mercury (1993), and Ricciardelli (1992a, 1992b) found bilinguals to have greater explicit knowledge of the language.”
BackgroundTversky, B. (2010) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/j.1756-8765.2010.01113.x · Cited by 313 · see citing works
The effects of bilingualism on toddlers’ executive functioning
Poulin‐Dubois, D., Blaye, A., Coutya, J., & Bialystok, E. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.10.009 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
Bilingualism, Language Proficiency, and Learning to Read in Two Writing Systems.
Bialystok, E., McBride-Chang, C. A., & Luk, G. (2005) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.97.4.580 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
“…comes from evidence that bilingualism enhances metalinguistic ability, including word awareness (Ben-Zeev, 1977; Cummins, 1978; Edwards & Christopherson, 1988; Ricciardelli, 1992; Yelland, Pollard, & Mercuri, 1993) and syntactic awareness (Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Galambos & Hakuta, 1988).”
Verbal fluency and repetition skills in healthy older Spanish-English bilinguals
Rosselli, M., Ardila, A., Araujo, K., Weekes, V. A., Caracciolo, V., Padilla, M., & Ostrosky-Solí, F. (2000) · Applied Neuropsychology · doi:10.1207/s15324826an0701_3 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
The relationship between bilingualism and the development of cognitive processes in problem-solving
Bialystok, E., & Majumder, S. (1998) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716400010584 · Cited by 292 · see citing works
Angelis, G. D. (2011) · International Journal of Multilingualism · doi:10.1080/14790718.2011.560669 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
Moving toward a neuroplasticity view of bilingualism, executive control, and aging
Baum, S. R., & Titone, D. A. (2014) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716414000174 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
Serratrice, L., Sorace, A., Filiaci, F., & Baldo, M. (2009) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728909004027 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
“These results are very similar to the findings reported by Galambos and Goldin-Meadow (1990) for sentences in which there was a mismatch between a temporal adverbial adjunct (e.g. “yesterday” = past) and the tense of the auxiliary verb (“am” = present).”
BackgroundResultThe metalinguistic benefits of limited contact with a second language
Yelland, G. W., Pollard, J., & Mercuri, A. (1993) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716400010687 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Cromdal, J. (1999) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716499001010 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
“An even more precise measure of analy- sis skills should be obtained by asking the subjects to explain why a certain grammatical detail (e.g., an inflection) is wrong (cf. Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialReconceptualizing Multicompetence as a Theory of Language Knowledge
Hall, J. K., Cheng, A., & Carlson, M. T. (2006) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/aml013 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Word Mapping and Executive Functioning in Young Monolingual and Bilingual Children
Bialystok, E., Barac, R., Blaye, A., & Poulin‐Dubois, D. (2010) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2010.516420 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
“…executive control to resolve conflict between form and meaning gives bilinguals an advantage on metalinguistic tasks (Bialystok, 1988; Cromdal, 1999; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990) but also on nonverbal tasks where no explicit linguistic processing is involved (reviewed in forthcoming discussion).”
BackgroundBilingual is as bilingual does: Metalinguistic abilities of Arabic-speaking children
Eviatar, Z., & Ibrahim, R. (2000) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716400004021 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
“…& Christophersen, 1988), tasks requiring the manipulation of sublexical phonological elements (e.g., Bruck & Genesee, 1995; Campbell & Sais, 1995; Titone, 1994), and tasks requiring the detection of ambiguity and grammaticality (e.g., Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Galambos & Hakuta, 1988).”
BackgroundHalle, T., Whittaker, J. V., Zepeda, M., Rothenberg, L., Anderson, R. J., Daneri, P., Wessel, J., & Buysse, V. (2014) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2013.12.002 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Producing bilinguals through immersion education: Development of metalinguistic awareness
Bialystok, E., Peets, K. F., & Moreno, S. (2012) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716412000288 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
“Therefore, it is similar to tasks used in the original literature that demonstrated bilingual advantages in metalinguistic knowledge, such as the correction of grammatical errors (e.g., Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990).”
MethodExposure to multiple languages enhances communication skills in infancy
Liberman, Z., Woodward, A. L., Keysar, B., & Kinzler, K. D. (2016) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12420 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
“…awareness), and are more flexible when learning novel word meanings (Ben-Zeev, 1977; Bialystok & Barac, 2012a; Byers-Heinlein & Werker, 2009; Cummings, 1987; Davidson & Tell, 2005; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Galambos & Hakuta, 1989; Hakuta, 1987; Healey & Skarabela, 2008; Ianco-Worrall, 1972).”
Kuo, L. J., & Anderson, R. C. (2010) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1080/10888431003623470 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
“The transience of bilingual effects reported in this study corroborates previous research on bilingualism with respect to phonological awareness and other aspects of metalinguistic awareness, such as word awareness (eg, Hakuta & Diaz, 1985 ; Yelland et al, 1993 ), and syntactic awareness ( Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 19…”
ResultPhonological Awareness of Bilingual and Monolingual Chinese Children.
Chen, X., Anderson, R. C., Li, W., Hao, M., Wu, X., & Shu, H. (2004) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.96.1.142 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
“As children grow older, monolingual children often catch up in aspects such as concept of print and concept of word and syntactic awareness, which may be the result of either maturation or reading instruction (Diaz, 1985; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Yelland, Pollard, & Mercuri, 1993).”
BackgroundThe bilingual advantage in phonetic learning
Antoniou, M., LIANG, E., Ettlinger, M., & Wong, P. C. M. (2014) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728914000777 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
“…(Ben-Zeev, 1977; Bialystok, 1991, 2001; Cummins, 1978; Ianco-Worrall, 1972; Jessner, 1999; Thomas, 1992), and better inhibitory control (Bialystok, Majumder & Martin, 2003; Bialystok & Viswanathan, 2009; Bruck & Genesee, 1995; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Green, 1998; Michael & Gollan, 2005).”
Revision Cognitive and Instructional Processes
Allal, L. K., Chanquoy, L., & Largy, P. (2004) · Studies in writing · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-1048-1 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Can You Say It Another Way? Cognitive Factors in Bilingual Children's Pragmatic Language Skills
Tare, M., & Gelman, S. A. (2010) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248371003699951 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
“Indeed, bilingual experience appears to enhance children’s metalinguistic abilities compared with monolingual experience (Bialystok, 1988; Cummins, 1978; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Rosenblum & Pinker, 1983).”
BackgroundThe Impact of Bilingualism on Language and Literacy Development
Bialystok, E. (2012) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118332382.ch25 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Word recognition in deaf readers: Cross-language activation of German Sign Language and German
Kubus, O., Villwock, A., Morford, J. P., & Rathmann, C. (2014) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716413000520 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“…Marian, 2009; Scheele, Leseman, & Mayo, 2010) and that bilingual children tend to outperform monolingual children on tasks tapping attentional control (Adesope, Lavin, Thompson, & Ungerleider, 2010) and metalinguistic knowledge (Bialystok, 1988; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Yow & Markman, 2011).”
BackgroundThompson, A. S. (2013) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2013.12034.x · Cited by 111 · see citing works
The role of sensitivity to rhymes, phonemes and tones in reading english and chinese pseudowords
Leong, C. K., Cheng, P. W., & Tan, L. (2005) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-004-3357-2 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
“But it is only with direct and systematic instruction that the learners will progress from a content-based perspective to one of form and function and the gradual restructuring of these two languages (Byrne, 1996; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990 ).”
BackgroundYAN, S., & Nicoladis, E. (2009) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728909990101 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
First and second language knowledge in the language classroom
Horst, M., White, J. L., & Bell, P. (2010) · International Journal of Bilingualism · doi:10.1177/1367006910367848 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
“There is evidence that metalinguistic awareness develops more readily in children who learn a second language (Ben-Zeev, 1977; Bialystok, 1986; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990) and that it can be activated through classroom activities that invite learners to make L1/L2 comparisons (Kupferberg &…”
BackgroundMetaphon: A metalinguistic approach to the treatment of phonological disorder in children
Dean, E. C., Howell, J., Waters, D., & Reid, J. (1995) · Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics · doi:10.3109/02699209508985318 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Bilingual/Immersion education: Indicators of good practice
May, S. A., Hill, R. K., & Tiakiwai, S.-J. (2004) · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Appraising and managing knowledge: Metacognitive skills after childhood head injury
Dennis, M., Barnes, M. A., Donnelly, R., Wilkinson, M., & Humphreys, R. P. (1996) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565649609540641 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Athanasopoulos, P., & Kasai, C. (2007) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716408080053 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“…abilities such as phonological awareness and reading skills (Bialystok, Majunder, & Martin, 2003; D’Angiulli, Siegel, & Sera, 2001; Yelland, Pollard, & Mercuri, 1993), grammatical development (Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990), and writing skills and fluency (Ransdell, Arecco, & Levy, 2001).”
Cho, J., Chiu, M. M., & McBride-Chang, C. A. (2011) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1080/10888438.2010.487143 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“…to morphological awareness, most studies have demonstrated the transfer of morphosyntactic knowledge only across languages such as English–Spanish (Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990), English–French (Deacon et al., 2007), and English–Hebrew (Geva, 1995), where the two languages share a number of…”
BackgroundCognitive and linguistic correlates of early exposure to more than one language.
Akhtar, N., & Menjivar, J. (2012) · Advances in Child Development and Behavior · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-394388-0.00002-2 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Translation Ability: A Natural Bilingual and Metalinguistic Skill
Malakoff, M. E. (1992) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)61514-9 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Effects of bilingualism and biliteracy on children's emerging concepts of print.
Bialystok, E. (1997) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037//0012-1649.33.3.429 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Syntactic awareness in young monolingual and bilingual (Urdu–English) children
Davidson, D. Z., Raschke, V., & Pervez, J. (2009) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2009.07.003 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Conflict resolution in sentence processing by bilinguals
Moreno, S., Bialystok, E., Wodniecka, Z., & Alain, C. (2010) · Journal of Neurolinguistics · doi:10.1016/j.jneuroling.2010.05.002 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Kaushanskaya, M., Blumenfeld, H. K., & Marian, V. (2011) · International Journal of Bilingualism · doi:10.1177/1367006911403201 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“…1994; Nippold, Erskine, & Freed, 1988; Smith, Jones, Landau, Gershkoff-Stowe, & Samuelson, 2002), metalinguistic capacity (e.g., Bialystok, 1988; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Yelland, Pollard, & Mercuri, 1993), and literacy acquisition (e.g., Metsala & Walley, 1998; Nation & Snowling, 1998;…”
Allen, T. E. (2015) · Sign language studies · doi:10.1353/sls.2015.0006 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“Second, the acquisition of two languages during early childhood brings demonstrable cognitive, language, literacy, and social benefits (Bialystock 1988; Bialystock and Feng 2009; Cummins 1993; Galambos and Goldin-Meadow 1990; Kovelman, Baker, and Petitto 2008; Scheele, Leseman, and Mayo 2010).”
BackgroundSingh, L., Poh, F. L. S., & Fu, C. S. L. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00667 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Attentional control in children's metalinguistic performance and measures of field independence.
Bialystok, E. (1992) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.4.654 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Linguistic and metalinguistic outcomes of intense immersion education: how bilingual?
Hermanto, N., Moreno, S., & Bialystok, E. (2012) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050.2011.652591 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Chen, X., & Padilla, A. M. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02122 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
The effect of bilingualism on cognitive ability: A test of the level of bilingualism hypothesis
Jarvis, L. H., Danks, J. H., & Merriman, W. E. (1995) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716400007311 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Reder, F., Marec‐Breton, N., Gombert, J.-É., & Demont, É. (2013) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12003 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Does competent bilingualism entail advantages for the third language learning of immigrant students?
Edele, A., Kempert, S., & Schotte, K. (2018) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.07.002 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Language Mediation among Emergent Bilingual Children
Olmedo, I. M. (2003) · Linguistics and Education · doi:10.1016/s0898-5898(03)00033-0 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Selective Attention in Cognitive Processing: The Bilingual Edge
Bialystok, E. (1992) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)61513-7 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Bilingualism and phonological awareness: the case of bilingual (French–Occitan) children
Laurent, A., & Martinot, C. (2009) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-009-9209-3 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“As far as syntactic awareness is concerned, Galambos and Goldin-Meadow (1990) and Demont (2001) demonstrated that bilingual experience favourably influences children’s performance on grammatical judgement and/or grammatical correction tasks.”
BackgroundFrancis, N. (1999) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s014271649900404x · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Language preference and development of dementia among bilingual individuals.
McMurtray, A. M., Saito, E. K., & Nakamoto, B. K. (2009) · PubMed · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Peets, K. F., Yim, O., & Bialystok, E. (2019) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050.2019.1677551 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Phonological Awareness across Child Populations: How Bilingualism and Dyslexia Interact
Vender, M., & Melloni, C. (2021) · Languages · doi:10.3390/languages6010039 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“…bilingual children, in particular, have more advanced word and syntactic awareness and usually show an advantage in morphological and phonological awareness too (Bialystok et al. 2014; Diaz 1985; Galambos and Goldin-Meadow 1990; Melloni and Vender 2020; Vender et al. 2021; Yelland et al. 1993).”
BackgroundThe Role of Cultural Artifacts in the Interpretation of Metaphorical Expressions About Time
Duffy, S. E. (2014) · Metaphor and Symbol · doi:10.1080/10926488.2014.889989 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“6Metalinguistic awareness involves the ability to think explicitly about aspects of language and solve linguistic problems, such as the detection of ambiguity and grammaticality (Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Galambos & Hakuta, 1988).”
BackgroundThe Impact of Bilingualism on Language and Literacy Development
Bialystok, E. (2006) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470756997.ch22 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Communicative Interactions, Knowledge of a Second Language, and Theory of Mind in Young Children
Berguno, G., & Bowler, D. (2004) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.3200/gntp.165.3.293-309 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Hale and Tager-Flusberg (2003) carried out a similar training study investigating the role of language in theory-of-mind development. Sixty 3-year-olds who had failed false-belief and sentential complement preliminary tests were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (a) a false-belief training group, (b) a sen…”
BackgroundInfluentialChildren's metalinguistic knowledge of syntactic constituents: Effects of age and schooling.
Ferreira, F., & Morrison, F. J. (1994) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037//0012-1649.30.5.663 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Concha, S., & Paratore, J. R. (2010) · Written Communication · doi:10.1177/0741088310383383 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“According to Galambos and Goldin-Meadow (1990), there is a normal course of development of metalinguistic awareness for monolingual speakers, and explicit analysis of linguistic knowledge is at the end of this path.”
BackgroundMethodFoursha-Stevenson, C. D., & Nicoladis, E. (2011) · International Journal of Bilingualism · doi:10.1177/1367006911425818 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“In some cases, bilingual children have demonstrated metalinguistic awareness skills earlier than monolinguals in tasks such as grammaticality judgments (Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Galambos & Hakuta, 1988).”
BackgroundCode-Switching during Shared and Independent Reading: Lessons Learned from a Preschooler
Bauer, E. B. (2000) · Research in the Teaching of English · doi:10.58680/rte20001712 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
The Development of External Symbol Systems: The Child as a Notator
Lee, K., & Karmiloff‐Smith, A. (1996) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012279660-9/50024-5 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Sun, B., Hu, G., & Curdt‐Christiansen, X. L. (2018) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-018-9846-5 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“The English and Chinese SA tests were developed by the authors based on an oral test used in Galambos and Goldin-Meadow (1990) and a written test designed by Author (2002).”
MethodZufferey, S., Moeschler, J., & Reboul, A. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316410875 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Bilingual parents' modeling of pragmatic language use in multiparty interactions
Tare, M., & Gelman, S. A. (2011) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716411000051 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“Bilingual children have shown enhanced metalinguistic skills on many different tasks, including making grammatical judgments (Bialystok, 1988; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990) and measures that require awareness of the arbitrary nature of words, such as Piaget’s sun–moon task (Bialystok, 1988).”
BackgroundAbu-Rabia, S., & Shakkour, W. (2014) · Open Journal of Modern Linguistics · doi:10.4236/ojml.2014.41001 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Identical findings were obtained between Spanish and English (Durgunoglu, Mir, & Arino-Martl, 2002; Dussias & Scaltz, 2008; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990).”
ResultGarraffa, M., Obregón, M., & Sorace, A. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01907 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Language Experience Changes Audiovisual Perception
Marian, V., Hayakawa, S. L., Lam, T. Q., & Schroeder, S. R. (2018) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci8050085 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“For instance, research shows that bilingual experience can increase cognitive control [19,20], enhance meta-linguistic awareness [21,22], delay the effects of Alzheimer’s disease in older adults [23,24], and improve perspective-taking ability in children [25,26].”
BackgroundThe effects of balanced biliteracy on Greek-German bilingual children’s secondary discourse ability
Bongartz, C., & Torregrossa, J. (2017) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050.2017.1355888 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“…awareness in several domains (Cummins 1980; Ricciardelli 1992; Bialystok 1993, 2001 and Sanz 2012 for a review), including word awareness (cf. Cummins 1980), syntactic awareness (cf. Galambos and Goldin-Meadow 1990) and phonological awareness (cf. Bialystok, Majumder, and Martin 2003).”
BackgroundFinch, K., Theakston, A., & Serratrice, L. (2018) · Language Learning Journal · doi:10.1080/09571736.2018.1448432 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“…in this study perceive, EAL children do perform better in MFL than their monolingual peers, it may be due to a potential development of enhanced metalinguistic awareness, which gives them a greater ability to manipulate and control language (Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Cenoz, 2013).”
Inklusion im Englischunterricht
Bongartz, C. M., & Rohde, A. (2016) · Peter Lang D eBooks · doi:10.3726/978-3-653-05268-8 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Written, scratch and spelling languages
Wong, Y. Z. (2021) · Macrolinguistics and Microlinguistics · doi:10.21744/mami.v2n1.15 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Dahm, R., & Angelis, G. D. (2017) · International Journal of Multilingualism · doi:10.1080/14790718.2017.1359275 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“…and rules of language, which is very useful to them during the process of learning an additional language (Diaz, 1985; Eviatar & Ibrahim, 2000; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Jessner, 2006, 2008; Ransdell, Barbier, & Niit, 2006; Ricciardelli, 1992, 1993; Yelland, Pollard, & Mercury, 1993).”
BackgroundMultilingualism and Metalinguistic Awareness
Sanz, C. (2012) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0802 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Zusammenhänge zwischen mehrsprachigen Sprachkompetenzen und Sprachbewusstheit bei Grundschulkindern
Bien-Miller, L., Akbulut, M., Wildemann, A., & Reich, H. H. (2017) · Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s11618-017-0740-8 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Effects of divided input on bilingual children with language impairment
Peña, E. D., Bedore, L. M., Shivabasappa, P., & Niu, L. (2018) · International Journal of Bilingualism · doi:10.1177/1367006918768367 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“For instance, they learn to differentiate form from the meanings of linguistic codes at an early age compared to monolingual peers (Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990).”
BackgroundFrancis, N. (2002) · Linguistics and Education · doi:10.1016/s0898-5898(01)00077-8 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
The ‘Awakening to Languages’ approach at preschool: developing children’s communicative competence
Coelho, D., Andrade, A. I., & Portugal, G. (2018) · Language Awareness · doi:10.1080/09658416.2018.1486407 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“…be the aspect of language that takes the longest to be acquired and depends on exposure to a variety of syntactic structures (Berkes & Flynn, 2013; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Rowland et al., 2012); therefore, additional opportunities to practise those structures are beneficial in a preschool…”
BackgroundA Comparison of Phonological Awareness Skills in Early French Immersion and English Children
Tingley, P. A., Dore, K. A., Lopez, A., Parsons, H., Campbell, E., Bird, E. K., & Cleave, P. L. (2004) · Journal of Psycholinguistic Research · doi:10.1023/b:jopr.0000027965.77686.1b · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“ness has been implicated to positively affect children’s later reading abilities (Casali & Louis-Alexandre, 2000; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990 ).”
BackgroundMetalexical Awareness: Development, Methodology or Written Language? A Cross-linguistic Comparison
Kurvers, J., & Uri, H. (2006) · Journal of Psycholinguistic Research · doi:10.1007/s10936-006-9019-6 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“and its referent (Bialystok, 1988; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Uri, 2001).”
Immigrants' Perceptions of their Native Language: Challenges to Actual Use and Maintenance
Mucherah, W. M. (2008) · Journal of Language Identity & Education · doi:10.1080/15348450802237806 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Simone, E. D., Beyersmann, E., Mulatti, C., Mirault, J., & Schmalz, X. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0251629 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Cognitive and Affective Perspective-Taking Ability of Young Bilinguals in South Korea
Han, S., & Lee, K. (2013) · Child Studies in Diverse Contexts · doi:10.5723/csdc.2013.3.1.069 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Rainey, V. R., Davidson, D. Z., & Li-Grining, C. P. (2015) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716415000326 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“…to use when speaking or writing their respective languages, their Applied Psycholinguistics 37:4 966 Rainey et al.: Executive functions and language brokering awareness of the grammatical structures of their languages may be enhanced (e.g., Davidson et al., 2010; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990).”
BackgroundMarsh, J. E., Hansson, P., Sörman, D. E., & Ljungberg, J. K. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01355 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Corpus, Concordance, Classification: Young Learners in the L1 Classroom
Sealey, A., & Thompson, P. (2007) · Language Awareness · doi:10.2167/la453.0 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“…the role of explicit instruction, especially in literacy, and so on, and debate continues about all of these issues (see, for example, Benelli et al., 2006; Edwards & Kirkpatrick, 1999; Francis, 2002; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Gombert, 1992; KarmiloffSmith et al., 1996; Tunmer et al., 1984).”
Background
- Authors
- Galambos, S. J., & Goldin-Meadow, S.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Galambos, Sylvia Joseph
- Venue
- Cognition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1990-01
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-56
- ISSN
- 0010-0277 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2021609983
- Cited by
- 276
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 2.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5t32mh016127-07)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH16127)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Keywords
- metalinguistic awareness, bilingualism, second language acquisition, grammatical error detection, error correction, error explanation, Spanish-English bilinguals, monolingual children, language development
- MeSH terms
- Awareness, Child, Child, Preschool, Cognition, Connecticut, El Salvador, Female, Humans, Language, Language Development, Linguistics, Male, United States
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
