A systematic review and meta-analysis of the cognitive correlates of bilingualism
Abstract
A number of studies have documented the cognitive outcomes associated with bilingualism. To gain a clear understanding of the extent and diversity of these cognitive outcomes, the authors conducted a meta-analysis of studies that examined the cognitive correlates of bilingualism. Data from 63 studies (involving 6,022 participants) were extracted and analyzed following established protocols and procedures for conducting systematic reviews and guidelines for meta-analysis. Results indicate that bilingualism is reliably associated with several cognitive outcomes, including increased attentional control, working memory, metalinguistic awareness, and abstract and symbolic representation skills. Overall mean effect sizes varied from small to large, depending on the cognitive outcomes measured, and were moderated by methodological features of the studies.
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The lack of difference between L2 and L1 readers in morphological inferencing can be attributed to enhanced metalinguistic awareness.
“Possibly, this can be attributed to the recruitment of L1 vocabulary (Ramirez et al., 2010) as well as enhanced metalinguistic awareness (Adesope et al., 2010) and good decoding skills (Raudszus et al., 2018).”
From Use of morphological and contextual cues in children’s lexical inferencing in L1 and L2 (2021) · cites this paper as Adesope et al., 2010
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How Big Is “Big”? Interpreting Effect Sizes in L2 Research
Plonsky, L., & Oswald, F. L. (2014) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12079 · Cited by 1,960 · see citing works
Bilingualism: consequences for mind and brain
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Luk, G. (2012) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2012.03.001 · Cited by 1,386 · see citing works
The bilingual adaptation: How minds accommodate experience
Bialystok, E. (2017) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000099 · Cited by 906 · see citing works
Bilingualism is not a categorical variable: Interaction between language proficiency and usage
Luk, G., & Bialystok, E. (2013) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2013.795574 · Cited by 859 · see citing works
Intelligent tutoring systems and learning outcomes: A meta-analysis
Ma, W., Adesope, O. O., Nesbit, J. C., & Liu, Q. (2014) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037123 · Cited by 840 · see citing works
Hilchey, M. D., & Klein, R. M. (2011) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-011-0116-7 · Cited by 794 · see citing works
Is bilingualism associated with enhanced executive functioning in adults? A meta-analytic review.
Lehtonen, M., Soveri, A., Laine, A., Järvenpää, J., de Bruin, A., & Antfolk, J. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000142 · Cited by 646 · see citing works
Cognitive Advantage in Bilingualism
de Bruin, A., Treccani, B., & Sala, S. D. (2014) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797614557866 · Cited by 605 · see citing works
Rethinking the Use of Tests: A Meta-Analysis of Practice Testing
Adesope, O. O., Trevisan, D. A., & Sundararajan, N. (2017) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654316689306 · Cited by 544 · see citing works
Valian, V. V. (2014) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728914000522 · Cited by 469 · see citing works
The cognitive development of young dual language learners: A critical review
Barac, R., Bialystok, E., Castro, D. C., & Sánchez, M. (2014) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.02.003 · Cited by 471 · see citing works
Calvo, A., & Bialystok, E. (2013) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2013.11.015 · Cited by 435 · see citing works
Is there a relation between onset age of bilingualism and enhancement of cognitive control?
Luk, G., de Sa, E., & Bialystok, E. (2011) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728911000010 · Cited by 421 · see citing works
Bilingualism and the development of executive function: The role of attention
Bialystok, E. (2015) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/cdep.12116 · Cited by 375 · see citing works
The Advantages of Bilingualism Debate
Antoniou, M. (2018) · Annual Review of Linguistics · doi:10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011718-011820 · Cited by 387 · see citing works
Hall, W. C. (2017) · Maternal and Child Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10995-017-2287-y · Cited by 362 · see citing works
Gathercole, V. C. M., THOMAS, E. M., Kennedy, I., Prys, C., Young, N. E., Viñas‐Guasch, N., Roberts, E. J., Hughes, E. K., & Jones, L. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00011 · Cited by 357 · see citing works
Bilingual education for young children: review of the effects and consequences
Bialystok, E. (2016) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050.2016.1203859 · Cited by 346 · see citing works
The benefits of being bilingual: Working memory in bilingual Turkish–Dutch children
Blom, E., Küntay, A. C., Messer, M. H., Verhagen, J., & Leseman, P. P. M. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2014.06.007 · Cited by 332 · see citing works
Bilingualism Enriches the Poor
de Abreu, P. E., Cruz‐Santos, A., Neto, C. J. T. D. A., Martin, R., & Bialystok, E. (2012) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797612443836 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Is bilingualism related to a cognitive advantage in children? A systematic review and meta-analysis.
Gunnerud, H. L., ten Braak, D., Reikerås, E. K. L., Donolato, E., & Melby‐Lervåg, M. (2020) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000301 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Bilingualism and working memory capacity: A comprehensive meta-analysis
Grundy, J. G., & Timmer, K. (2016) · Second language Research · doi:10.1177/0267658316678286 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
Melby-Lervåg, M., & Lervåg, A. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0033890 · Cited by 363 · see citing works
Hunsu, N. J., Adesope, O., & Bayly, D. J. (2016) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2015.11.013 · Cited by 272 · see citing works
Musgrave, S. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781107445307.026 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
Do instructional interventions influence college students’ critical thinking skills? A meta-analysis
Niu, L., Behar-Horenstein, L. S., & Garvan, C. W. (2013) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2012.12.002 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
The effects of smartphone addiction on learning: A meta-analysis
Sunday, O. J., Adesope, O., & Maarhuis, P. L. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2021.100114 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
No evidence for bilingual cognitive advantages: A test of four hypotheses.
von Bastian, C. C., Souza, A. S., & Gade, M. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0000120 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
Moving toward a neuroplasticity view of bilingualism, executive control, and aging
Baum, S. R., & Titone, D. A. (2014) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716414000174 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
How does bilingualism modify cognitive function? Attention to the mechanism
Bialystok, E., & Craik, F. I. M. (2022) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-022-02057-5 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
Prevoo, M. J. L., Malda, M., Mesman, J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2015) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654315584685 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
van den Noort, M., Struys, E., Bosch, P., Jaswetz, L., Perriard, B., Yeo, S., Barisch, P., Vermeire, K., Lee, S., & Lim, S. (2019) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs9030027 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Yow, W. Q., & Li, X. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00164 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Larson‐Hall, J., & Plonsky, L. (2015) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12115 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Multicultural Experiences: A Systematic Review and New Theoretical Framework
Maddux, W., Lu, J. G., Affinito, S. J., & Galinsky, A. D. (2020) · The Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/annals.2019.0138 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Dallinger, S., Jonkmann, K., Hollm, J., & Fiege, C. (2015) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.09.003 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
A Meta‐Analysis of Reliability Coefficients in Second Language Research
Plonsky, L., & Derrick, D. J. (2016) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/modl.12335 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
A methodological synthesis of self-paced reading in second language research
Marsden, E. J., Thompson‐Lee, S., & Plonsky, L. (2018) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716418000036 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
The effect of childhood bilectalism and multilingualism on executive control
Antoniou, K., Grohmann, K. Κ., Kambanaros, M., & Katsos, N. (2016) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2015.12.002 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
A Review of Meta-Analyses in Education
Ahn, S., Ames, A. J., & Myers, N. D. (2012) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654312458162 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Brain network activity in monolingual and bilingual older adults
Grady, C. L., Luk, G., Craik, F. I. M., & Bialystok, E. (2014) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.10.042 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Charmaraman, L., Woo, M., Quach, A., & Erkut, S. (2014) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0035437 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Verbal redundancy in multimedia learning environments: A meta-analysis.
Adesope, O., & Nesbit, J. (2012) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0026147 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Donnelly, S., Brooks, P. J., & Homer, B. D. (2019) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-019-01567-z · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Attentional control in early and later bilingual children
Kapa, L. L., & Colombo, J. A. (2013) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2013.01.011 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Brouwer, S. M., Engen, K. J. V., Calandruccio, L., & Bradlow, A. R. (2012) · The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America · doi:10.1121/1.3675943 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Meta-Analysis Reveals a Bilingual Advantage That Is Dependent on Task and Age
Ware, A. T., Kirkovski, M., & Lum, J. A. G. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01458 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Bilingualism interacts with domain in a working memory task: Evidence from aging.
Luo, L., Craik, F. I. M., Moreno, S., & Bialystok, E. (2012) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0030875 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Multilingualism, empathy and multicompetence
Dewaele, J., & Wei, L. (2012) · International Journal of Multilingualism · doi:10.1080/14790718.2012.714380 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Cognitive Advantages of Bilingual Children in Different Sociolinguistic Contexts
Blom, E., Boerma, T., Bosma, E., Cornips, L. M. E. A., & Everaert, E. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00552 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Providing Care for Children in Immigrant Families
Linton, J. M., Green, A., Chilton, L. A., Duffee, J. H., Dilley, K. J., Gutierrez, J. R., Keane, V. A., Krugman, S., McKelvey, C. D., & Nelson, J. L. (2019) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2019-2077 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
McLeod, S. L., Verdon, S. E., & Ma, T. I. E. P. O. M. C. S. E. B. M. J. B. E. B. A. B. D. B. M. B. D. B. M. B. C. B. F. B.-L. F. B. K. C. M. C.-F. B. D. A. F.-B. C. G.-N. H. G. B. G. A. H. S. H. M. K. S. K. A. M. J. M. Þ. (. M. G. M. S. M. S. N. (2017) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2017_ajslp-15-0161 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Greenberg, A., Bellana, B., & Bialystok, E. (2012) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2012.10.002 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Ecological Validity in Bilingualism Research and the Bilingual Advantage
Blanco-Elorrieta, E., & Liina Pylkkänen, A. (2018) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2018.10.001 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
A Survey of Robot-Assisted Language Learning (RALL)
Randall, N. (2019) · ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction · doi:10.1145/3345506 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
¡Vamos! How School Leaders Promote Equity and Excellence for Bilingual Students
Scanlan, M. K., & López, F. (2012) · Educational Administration Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0013161x11436270 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Measuring bilingualism: The quest for a “bilingualism quotient”
Marian, V., & Hayakawa, S. L. (2020) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716420000533 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
On the phantom-like appearance of bilingualism effects on neurocognition: (How) should we proceed?
Leivada, E., Westergaard, M. R., Duñabeitia, J. A., & Rothman, J. (2020) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728920000358 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
The effect of bilingualism on creativity: Developmental and educational perspectives
Leikin, M. (2012) · International Journal of Bilingualism · doi:10.1177/1367006912438300 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
English Language Learners and Academic Achievement: Revisiting the Threshold Hypothesis
Ardasheva, Y., Tretter, T. R., & Kinny, M. (2011) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2011.00652.x · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Kempert, S., Saalbach, H., & Hardy, I. (2011) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0023619 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
The effects of bilingual growth on toddlers’ executive function
Crivello, C., Kuzyk, O., Rodrigues, M. L., Friend, M., Zesiger, P., & Poulin‐Dubois, D. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.08.004 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Handbook on Positive Development of Minority Children and Youth
Leyendecker, B., & Cabrera, N. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-43645-6 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Flexibility in task switching by monolinguals and bilinguals
Wiseheart, M., Viswanathan, M., & Bialystok, E. (2014) · Bilingualism: Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728914000273 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Metacognition in Language Learning and Teaching
Haukås, Å., Bjørke, C., & Dypedahl, M. (2018) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781351049146 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Sierens, S., & Avermaet, P. V. (2013) · Multilingual Matters eBooks · doi:10.21832/9781783090815-014 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Moreno, S., Wodniecka, Z., Tays, W. J., Alain, C., & Bialystok, E. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0094169 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Hughes, C. H., Devine, R. T., & Wang, Z. (2017) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12746 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Miller, E., Ziaian, T., & Esterman, A. (2017) · International Journal of Inclusive Education · doi:10.1080/13603116.2017.1365955 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Kieffer, M. J. (2011) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831211419490 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Bilingualism as a model for multitasking
Poarch, G. J., & Bialystok, E. (2014) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2014.12.003 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Effects of short-term music and second-language training on executive control
Janus, M., Lee, Y., Moreno, S., & Bialystok, E. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.11.009 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Generational Differences in Academic Achievement Among Immigrant Youths
Duong, M. T., Badaly, D., Liu, F. F., Schwartz, D., & McCarty, C. A. (2015) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654315577680 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Word recognition in deaf readers: Cross-language activation of German Sign Language and German
Kubus, O., Villwock, A., Morford, J. P., & Rathmann, C. (2014) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716413000520 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Dolean, D. D., Melby‐Lervåg, M., Ţincaş, I., Damşa, C. I., & Lervåg, A. (2019) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2019.101218 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Executive function and bilingualism in young and older adults
Kousaie, S. (2014) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00250 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
A Systematic Review of Teacher–Child Interactions With Multilingual Young Children
Langeloo, A., Lara, M. M., Deunk, M., Klitzing, N. F., & Strijbos, J.-W. (2019) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654319855619 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Bilingualism and Inhibitory Control Influence Statistical Learning of Novel Word Forms
Bartolotti, J., Marian, V., Schroeder, S. R., & Shook, A. (2011) · Front. Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00324 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Uljarević, M., Katsos, N., Hudry, K., & Gibson, J. L. (2016) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12596 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Barac, R., Moreno, S., & Bialystok, E. (2016) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12538 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Integrating the 4Cs into EFL Integrated Skills Learning
Pardede, P. (2020) · JET (Journal of English Teaching) · doi:10.33541/jet.v6i1.190 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
More Than the Sum of Its Parts: A Transformative Theory of Biculturalism
West, A. L., Zhang, R., Yampolsky, M. A., & Sasaki, J. Y. (2017) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022117709533 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Die Rolle der Sprache für zuwanderungsbezogene Ungleichheiten im Bildungserfolg
Kempert, S., Edele, A., Rauch, D. P., Wolf, K., Paetsch, J., Darsow, A., Maluch, J. T., & Stanat, P. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-04322-3_5 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Collins, B. A. (2014) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.04.009 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Soto, G., & Yu, B. (2014) · Augmentative and Alternative Communication · doi:10.3109/07434618.2013.878751 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Cha, K., & Goldenberg, C. (2015) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000030 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
IDENTIFYING A THRESHOLD FOR THE EXECUTIVE FUNCTION ADVANTAGE IN BILINGUAL CHILDREN
CAT, C. D., Gusnanto, A., & Serratrice, L. (2017) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263116000486 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Grundy, J. G., Chung-Fat-Yim, A., Friesen, D. C., Mak, L., & Bialystok, E. (2017) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2017.02.010 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Bocanegra‐Valle, A. (2013) · Journal of English for Academic Purposes · doi:10.1016/j.jeap.2013.10.010 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Ardasheva, Y., Wang, Z., Adesope, O., & Valentine, J. C. (2017) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654316689135 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Hartanto, A., & Yang, H. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0000672 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Language maintenance and loss in a population study of young Australian children
Verdon, S. E., McLeod, S. L., & Winsler, A. (2014) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2013.12.003 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Plurilingualism as a Catalyst for Creativity in Superdiverse Societies: A Systemic Analysis
Piccardo, E. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02169 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
A Meta-Analysis on the Effectiveness of Bilingual Programs in Europe
Reljic, G., Ferring, D., & Martin, R. (2015) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654314548514 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Bilingualism and Cognitive Reserve: A Critical Overview and a Plea for Methodological Innovations
Calvo, N., García, A. M., Manoiloff, L. M. V., & Ibáñez, A. M. (2016) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2015.00249 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Technology-Assisted Vocabulary Learning for EFL Learners: A Meta-Analysis
Hao, T., Wang, Z., & Ardasheva, Y. (2021) · Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness · doi:10.1080/19345747.2021.1917028 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Musical training, bilingualism, and executive function: working memory and inhibitory control
LaPlume, A. A., Moradzadeh, L., & Wiseheart, M. (2018) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-018-0095-6 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
ERP-pupil size correlations reveal how bilingualism enhances cognitive flexibility
Kuipers, J.-R., & Thierry, G. (2013) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2013.01.012 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
The Longitudinal Effect of Bilingual Immersion Schooling on Cognitive Control and Intelligence*
Woumans, E., Surmont, J., Struys, E., & Duyck, W. (2016) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12171 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Calafato, R. (2019) · Lingua · doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2019.06.001 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
- Authors
- Adesope, O. O., Lavin, T., Thompson, T., & Ungerleider, C.
- Affiliations
- Washington State University (US)
- Directions Evidence and Policy Research Group
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- ORCID
- Adesope, Olusola O.
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 2010-06
- Volume
- 80
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 207-245
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- OpenAlex
- W2112507528
- Cited by
- 1,132
- References
- 129
- Citations by year
- 2026: 47 · 2025: 68 · 2024: 70 · 2023: 63 · 2022: 81 · 2021: 101 · 2020: 109 · 2019: 119 · 2018: 76 · 2017: 74 · 2016: 101 · 2015: 88 · 2014: 56 · 2013: 34 · 2012: 24
- FWCI
- 1.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
- Social Sciences › Linguistics and Language › Multilingual Education and Policy
- Keywords
- bilingualism, cognitive correlates, attentional control, working memory, metalinguistic awareness, cognitive benefits of bilingualism, effect size
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