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Immunotoxicologic evaluation of chlorine-based drinking water disinfectants, sodium hypochlorite and monochloramine
Abstract
Male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to chlorine-based disinfectants in the drinking water from weaning to 12 weeks of age, at which time they were terminated and assessed for immune competence. Chlorine-based drinking water disinfectants used were sodium hypochlorite (5, 15 and 30 ppm) and monochloramine (9, 19 and 38 ppm). Parameters of immunity measured were spleen and thymus weights, antibody production, delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) reactions, natural killer cell (NKC) cytotoxicity, oxidative metabolism response (i.e chemiluminescence-CL) and phagocytosis by macrophages, and production of 2 immunoregulatory cytokines, interleukin 2 (IL2) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Significant (P less than or equal to 0.05) reductions of spleen weight, DTH reactions, and oxidative metabolism by macrophages were observed only in groups of rats exposed to high levels (30 ppm) of sodium hypochlorite, while PGE2 production was elevated. Rats exposed to the higher doses of monochloramine had reduced spleen weights (38 ppm), decreased antibody synthesis (9 and 19 ppm) and augmented PGE2 production (19 and 38 ppm). These results extend the earlier observations of others that macrophage function of laboratory rodents may be impaired by exposure to high concentrations of chlorinated drinking water. Furthermore, the function of other major populations of immunocytes and types of immune responses may also be altered following subchronic exposure to high concentrations of chlorinated drinking water. These types of effects on the immune system are a previously unrecognized potential side-effect of the ubiquitous practice of disinfection of water with chlorine compounds. Alteration of immune function of chlorine-based disinfectant-exposed rats in this study was only evident at relatively high doses, and only selected immune responses were altered. It appears, therefore, that these chlorine-based disinfectants are not particularly strong immunodepressants. However, further studies in different species may be warranted in order to better extrapolate to implications to human health following chronic low-level exposure.
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In young male Sprague Dawley rats, 9-week monochloramine in drinking water caused reduced relative spleen weight at 38 mg/l, decreased serum IgG antibody production at 9 and 19 mg/l, and augmented prostaglandin E2 production at 19 and 38 mg/l.
“Rats had reduced relative spleen weight (38 mg/l), decreased serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibody production (9 and 19 mg/l) and augmented prostaglandin E 2 production by adherent resident peritoneal cells (19 and 38 mg/l).”
From Inorganic chloramines: a critical review of the toxicological and epidemiological evidence as a basis for occupational exposure limit setting (2020) · cites this paper as Exon et al. 1987
The authors concluded that monochloramine is not a particularly strong immunodepressant because the effects were observed at relatively high doses.
“The authors concluded that monochloramine is not a particularly strong immunodepressant as the effects were observed at relatively high doses (Exon et al. 1987).”
From Inorganic chloramines: a critical review of the toxicological and epidemiological evidence as a basis for occupational exposure limit setting (2020) · cites this paper as Exon et al. 1987
After 9-week exposures of rats to 0.8-3.4 mg/kg bw/day of monochloramine, some alterations in immune function were observed.
“After 9-week exposures of rats to 0.8-3.4mg/kg bw/ day of monochloramine, some alterations in immune function were observed (Exon et al. 1987).”
From Inorganic chloramines: a critical review of the toxicological and epidemiological evidence as a basis for occupational exposure limit setting (2020) · cites this paper as Exon et al. 1987
Minor immunological and hematological effects after short-term oral exposure (0.8-38 mg/kg bw/day) were reported in some studies in rodents.
“Minor immunological and hematological effects after short-term oral exposure (0.8-38 mg/kg bw/day) were reported in some studies in rodents (Bull 1980;Moore et al. 1980;Exon et al. 1987;Guo et al. 2011).”
From Inorganic chloramines: a critical review of the toxicological and epidemiological evidence as a basis for occupational exposure limit setting (2020) · cites this paper as Exon et al. 1987
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Metadata
- Authors
- Exon, J. H., Koller, L. D., O'Reilly, C. A., & Peter Bercz, J.
- Affiliations
- University of Idaho (US)
- Corresponding author
- Exon, Jerry H.
- Venue
- Toxicology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1987-06
- Volume
- 44
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 257-269
- ISSN
- 0300-483X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2003019624
- Semantic Scholar
- 967c4b7fb1af8e1556494b1bb4b706541a7852d6
- Cited by
- 29
- References
- 22
- Citations by year
- 2024: 1 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 1 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 2 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 1 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 0.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Toxicology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Water Treatment and Disinfection
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immunotoxicology and immune responses
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Environmental Toxicology and Ecotoxicology
- Keywords
- immunotoxicity, chlorine disinfectants, sodium hypochlorite, monochloramine, chlorinated drinking water, immunocompetence, spleen weight, thymus weight, antibody production, delayed-type hypersensitivity, NK cell cytotoxicity, chemiluminescence, phagocytosis, prostaglandin E2, interleukin-2, subchronic exposure, immunodepression
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Chloramines, Disinfectants, Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay, Hypersensitivity, Delayed, Immunoglobulin G, Immunity, Interleukin-2, Killer Cells, Natural, Male, Organ Size, Oxidation-Reduction, Phagocytosis, Prostaglandins E, Rats, Inbred Strains, Sodium Hypochlorite, Water Supply, Dinoprostone, Rats
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