Cited by 543Food Security and Health in Diverse PopulationsChild Abuse and TraumaChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

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Poverty, Stress, and Brain Development: New Directions for Prevention and Intervention

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Blair, Clancy, Raver, C. Cybele·2016·Academic Pediatrics

DOI 10.1016/j.acap.2016.01.010PMC PMC5765853

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Abstract

We review some of the growing evidence of the costs of poverty to children's neuroendocrine function, early brain development, and cognitive ability. We underscore the importance of addressing the negative consequences of poverty-related adversity early in children's lives, given evidence supporting the plasticity of executive functions and associated physiologic processes in response to early intervention and the importance of higher order cognitive functions for success in school and in life. Finally, we highlight some new directions for prevention and intervention that are rapidly emerging at the intersection of developmental science, pediatrics, child psychology and psychiatry, and public policy.

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Father involvement in infancy predicts behavior and response to chronic stress in middle childhood in a low‐income Latinx sample
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Does Mindfulness Moderate the Link of Worry About COVID-19 With Adjustment? An Actor-Partner Interdependence Model Approach
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BackgroundResult
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O’Reilly, F., Gattas, S., & Scerif, G. (2025) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2025.101198 · Cited by 13
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Ahmed, S. F., Chaku, N., Waters, N. E., Ellis, A., & Davis-Kean, P. E. (2022) · Advances in child development and behavior · doi:10.1016/bs.acdb.2022.10.006 · Cited by 11
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“Diversity in demands can range from growing up in disadvantaged or affluent environments to navigating the complexities when growing up in challenging circumstances (Blair and Raver, 2016; Choudhury et al., 2023).”
Background
Peran Psikologi Pendidikan dalam Proses Pembelajaran di Kelas untuk Peserta Didik yang Beragam
Azzahra, L., & Darmiyanti, A. (2024) · Jurnal Psikologi · doi:10.47134/pjp.v1i4.2661 · Cited by 29
“Stres kronis atau trauma dapat menghambat perkembangan otak, terutama di area prefrontal cortex yang penting untuk fungsi eksekutif seperti perhatian, regulasi emosi, dan pemecahan masalah (Blair & Raver, 2016).”
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Cognitive impairment and dementia—Are they linked to childhood health and socioeconomic status? A systematic review
Le, T., Maharani, A., Hayter, M., Gilleen, J., & Lee, A. J. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0311074 · Cited by 8
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Written in the Body?
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“Addressing the effects of poverty related stressors on brain development could include strengthening earned income tax credits and housing subsidy programs (Blair and Raver 2016).”
Background
Early impacts of Room to Grow: A multifaceted intervention supporting parents and children age zero to three
Wimer, C., Marti, M., Jeanne Brooks-gunn, B., & Waldfogel, J. (2021) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2021.106041 · Cited by 8
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“Parents’ impact on their children’s development is fundamental during the earliest years of life when children’s brains are rapidly developing, because parents almost exclusively create and shape childhood experiences (blair and raver 2016).”
Background
Influence of stigma, sociodemographic and clinical characteristics on mental health-related service use and associated costs among young people in the United Kingdom
Ribeiro, W. S., Romeo, R., King, D., Owens, S., Gronholm, P. C., Fisher, H. L., Laurens, K. R., & Evans-Lacko, S. E. (2022) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-022-01947-2 · Cited by 8
“This may be related to the fact that young people living under deprived circumstances are disproportionally affected by different types of disability [44], including developmental problems [45], and, therefore, are more likely to use special education provision, as has been shown by Snell et al.”
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Psychobiological foundations of coping and emotion regulation: Links to maltreatment and depression in a racially diverse, economically disadvantaged sample of adolescent girls
Bendezú, J. J., Handley, E. D., Manly, J. T., Toth, S. L., & Cicchetti, D. (2022) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105826 · Cited by 9
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Attention and Academic Performance: From Early Childhood to Adolescence
Miranda, M. C., Batistela, S., & Alves, M. V. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-06908-6_4 · Cited by 7
The condition of poverty: a case study of low socioeconomic status on Chinese students’ National College Entrance Exam and college enrolment
Liu, D., Ku, H., & Morgan, T. L. (2019) · Asia Pacific Journal of Education · doi:10.1080/02188791.2019.1575794 · Cited by 7
“The consequence of the accumulated effects includes low selfesteem, a diminished motivation for learning, and decreased achievement capacity (Blair & Raver, 2016).”
Background
Exploratory Mixed-Methods Study of a Primary Care–Based Intervention Promoting Shared Reading During Infancy
Crosh, C. C., Barsella, A., Slambrouck, L. V., Notario, P. M., Li, Y., Parsons, A. A., & Hutton, J. (2022) · Clinical Pediatrics · doi:10.1177/00099228221085825 · Cited by 7
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Maldonado, E., Nislin, M. A., Marín, L., Martínez‐Escribano, A., Engüix, A., López, C., Magarín, A., Álamo, A., Ortíz, P., Muñoz, M., et al. (2019) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2019.26 · Cited by 7
“In this respect, it is wellknown that familial (e.g. parenting styles) and environmental (e.g. noise) variables have a constant modulatory effect on executive functions (Berthelsen, Hayes, White, & Williams, 2017; Blair & Raver, 2016).”
Background
Interventions aimed at reducing poverty for primary prevention of mental illness: A scoping review
Enns, J. E., Holmqvist, M., Wener, P. F., Rothney, J., Halas, G., Kosowan, L., Goertzen, L. N., & Katz, A. (2019) · Mental Health & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.mhp.2019.200165 · Cited by 9
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BackgroundSelf-citation
The Associations between maternal depressive symptoms and parenting practices among low income head start eligible families
Lee, K., & Hunter, T. (2021) · Social Work in Mental Health · doi:10.1080/15332985.2021.1999365 · Cited by 7
“However, the outcomes of the analysis demonstrated that children enrolled in Head Start and other early childhood programs were less susceptible to absorbing parental stress and that enrollment in these services helped mitigate the impacts of parental stress on the children (Blair & Raver, 2016).”
Does attending preschool in an economically advantaged or disadvantaged neighborhood moderate the effects of the preschool edition of promoting alternative thinking strategies®?
Kapetanovic, S., Hau, H. G., Eichas, K., Olsson, T. M., Ferrer‐Wreder, L., & Eninger, L. (2022) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2022.978662 · Cited by 7
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Background
The Role of an Early Childhood Community Health Worker in Addressing Psycho-Social Needs in the Perinatal and Early Childhood Period
Moheize, S., Hsu, M., Matiz, L. A., Peretz, P. J., Medina, K., Esteves, A., Meyer, D. D., Maletz, B., Pineda, L., & Berger‐Jenkins, E. (2024) · Journal of Primary Care & Community Health · doi:10.1177/21501319241234478 · Cited by 6
Overcoming socioeconomic adversity: Academic resilience in mathematics achievement among children and adolescents in Ireland
Sheehan, J., & Hadfield, K. (2024) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjdp.12512 · Cited by 15
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Osiesi, M. P., Salami, O. O., Aruleba, A. L., Akinola, O. T., Fadiya, A. A., Babalola, A. T., Ajimuse, M. S., Arogundade, A. O., & Okocha, S. N. (2024) · Journal of Poverty · doi:10.1080/10875549.2024.2338175 · Cited by 10
“It has been documented and revealed through several empirical studies that poverty negatively impacts on students’ educational development and achievement (Blair & Raver, 2016; Ihejirika & Green, 2020; Smarr, 2020).”
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Londono, M., Dionne, C., & Lacharité, C. (2024) · Journal of Early Intervention · doi:10.1177/10538151241271134 · Cited by 10
“As described in the work by Blair and Raver (2016), children in poverty face challenges related to lower language stimulation and increased stress, which affect executive functioning and overall development.”
The Unhealthy Relationship Between Stress and Poverty
Breitenbach, M., Kapferer, E., & Sedmak, C. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-77738-8_8 · Cited by 6
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“…such as chronic, toxic stress children may experience through poverty and other adverse conditions, affect brain and cognitive development impacting academic achievement (Blair & Raver, 2016; Brisson et al., 2020; Francis et al., 2018; Hughes & Tucker, 2018; Little, 2017; Masten et al., 2012).”
Background
Regulación emocional en adolescentes
Bolívar-Ramírez, M., Cruz, S. G. R., & Prieto, B. L. A. (2022) · Apuntes de bioética · doi:10.35383/apuntes.v5i2.796 · Cited by 18
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“There is evidence that children who grow up in poverty have less gray matter in their frontal and temporal cortex and hippocampus compared to developmental norms (Blair & Raver, 2016).”
Association between maternal prenatal depressive symptoms and offspring epigenetic aging at 3-5 weeks
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“…a vast amount of literature indicates that growing in a poor home can modulate children’s academic outcomes and the emergence and development of different aspects of cognition and emotional behavior (Blair & Raver, 2016; Brooks-Gunn & Duncan, 1997; Dickerson & Popli, 2016; Luby et al., 2013).”
Background
Early Childhood Income Instability and Mental Health in Adolescence: Parenting Stress and Child Maltreatment as Mediators
Zhang, L., Liu, Y., & Jonson‐Reid, M. (2024) · Child Maltreatment · doi:10.1177/10775595241236389 · Cited by 5
“There might be omitted or unobserved mechanisms of effects that could in-ﬂ uence child mental health (Blair & Raver, 2016).”
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Pettoello‐Mantovani, M., Haddad, J., Bali, D., Giardino, I., Vural, M., Şevketoğlu, E., Pop, T. L., Pastore, M. N., & Somekh, E. (2026) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2026.115028 · Cited by 5
Even less visible: disadvantaged children in disadvantaged countries
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“Nevertheless, interventions that support the improvement of self-regulation appear promising in tackling these adversities (Blair & Raver, 2016).”
Background
Small-for-Gestational-Age and Vocabulary and Achievement Test Scores at Age 9 Among Children Born at Term in a Contemporary U.S. Sample
Reichman, N. E., Corman, H., Noonan, K., Papas, E. D., Kuhn, K. B., & Hegyi, T. (2023) · Maternal and Child Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10995-023-03760-y · Cited by 5
“Because socioeconomic disadvantage is an independent risk factor for poor cognitive outcomes, this cohort represents a high-risk and clinically relevant population (Blair & Raver, 2016).”
Background
ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN EARLY MATERIAL HARDSHIP AND BEHAVIORAL SELF-REGULATION DEVELOPMENT ACROSS CHILDHOOD: A PERSON-CENTERED APPROACH
Liu, Q., Razza, R. A., Vasilenko, S. A., & Merrin, G. J. (2023) · Research in Human Development · doi:10.1080/15427609.2024.2310449 · Cited by 6
“Derived from developmental systems theory and prior empirical studies, the development of behavioral self-regulation is malleable and influenced by the early impoverished context (Blair & Raver, 2016; Brooks-Gunn & Duncan, 1997; Evans & Kim, 2013).”
Method
Inequities in Public Library Branch Access and Children's Book Circulation in a Midwestern American City
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“ECD interventions are especially impactful in developing countries and communities affected by poverty (Blair & Raver, 2016; Rao et al., 2017).”
Background
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Bhanot, S. P., & Heller, S. (2022) · Journal of Behavioral Public Administration · doi:10.30636/jbpa.51.300 · Cited by 5
“(2016)), and may be exacerbated by the additional stress faced by youth of less privileged backgrounds (Mullainathan and Shafir, 2013; Blair and Raver, 2016).”
Background
An exploration of risk factors in a community sample of low socioeconomic status youth in South Africa
Pillay, L. G., Pillay, B. J., Kliewer, W. L., & Sibanda, W. (2023) · South African Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1177/00812463231186390 · Cited by 5
“Blair and Raver (2016) add that poverty affects children’s health through the toxic effects of stress on the brain. Duval et al. (2017) found that those at higher-income levels showed higher hippocampal activation and recognition accuracy than those at lower-income levels, suggesting that income is more strongly assoc…”
BackgroundInfluential
The Children, Caregivers, and Community (C3) study of together growing strong: A protocol for an observational, place-based initiative in Sunset Park, Brooklyn
Miller, E. B., Canfield, C. F., Barajas-Gonzalez, R. G., Chung, A., Katter, J., & Kerker, B. D. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0290985 · Cited by 6
“Early childhood adversity, including poverty, racism and discrimination, may also affect brain development and key child development outcomes that may have longitudinal effects later in life [8,26].”
Background
Longitudinal assessments of functional near-infrared spectroscopy background functional connectivity in low- and middle-income infants during a social cognition task.
Burr, S. D. L., Pirazzoli, L., Dopierała, A., Bejjanki, V. R., Nelson, C. A., & Emberson, L. L. (2024) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0001531 · Cited by 7
United States Pediatricians' Attitudes Regarding Public Policies for Low-Income Children and Their Profession's Advocacy Priorities
Federico, S. G., Cull, W. L., Olson, L. M., Garg, A., Racine, A. D., Fisher, A., & Dreyer, B. P. (2018) · Academic Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.acap.2018.04.003 · Cited by 5
New York State Profile of Young Children in Deep Poverty
Smith, S. K., Granja, M. R., & Nguyen, U. T. (2017) · doi:10.7916/d8-5k8a-ns96 · Cited by 5
Multilayer network associations between the exposome and childhood brain developmentPreprint
Simpson-Kent, I. L., Gataviņš, M. M., Tooley, U. A., Boroshok, A. L., McDermott, C. L., Park, A. T., Reyes, L. M. D., Bathelt, J., Tisdall, M. D., & Mackey, A. P. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.10.23.563611 · Cited by 6
“If these results replicate, they could be seen as additional justification for policies like unconditional cash transfers and lead monitoring and abatement, though the empirical support for these policies is already extensive (for review, see Blair and Raver, 2016; Farah, 2018).”
Background
The influence of deprivation on cortical development and psychotic symptoms in youth
Thomas, M., Whittle, S., & Cropley, V. (2025) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.14150 · Cited by 4
“…LMM and mediation analyses with grey matter volume in 7 subcortical regions (Fischl et al., 2002), given research implicating subcortical regions (e.g. limbic structures) in deprivation-related effects on emotional and cognitive development (Blair & Raver, 2016; Callaghan & Tottenham, 2016).”
“Growing up under pressure”: The family stress model and its role in psychological aggression and physical assault across early and late childhood
Adaranijo, E. T., & Mbamba, C. R. (2025) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2025.107472 · Cited by 4
Persistent Poverty and Pediatric Cancer Survival
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Executive functions in Palestinian Children: Effects of chronic conflict and psychosocial factors
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Executive function intervention in the school context: A scoping review
Cassiano, R. G. M., Engeroff, M. A., Cidade, B. G., Martins, M. E. D. O., Barros, S. B. D. T., Canevazzi, S. G. L., Gaspardo, C. M., Dias, N. M., & Cardoso, C. D. O. (2025) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2025.2579203 · Cited by 4
Unmet Social Needs and Patterns of Hair Cortisol Concentration in Mother–Child Dyads
Keeton, V. F., Bidwell, J. T., Filho, E. J. D. M., Silveira, P. P., Hessler, D., Pantell, M. S., Wing, H. E., Brown, E. M., Iott, B. E., & Gottlieb, L. M. (2023) · Chronic Stress · doi:10.1177/24705470231173768 · Cited by 5
Socioeconomic Disparities for Early Childhood Anthropometrics and Vocabulary and Socio-emotional Skills: Dynamic Evidence from Chilean Longitudinal Data
Behrman, J. R., Contreras, D., Palma, M. I., & Puentes, E. (2023) · Population Research and Policy Review · doi:10.1007/s11113-023-09832-9 · Cited by 5
“Other mechanisms could be that high-income households face lower stress, which could benefit children’s development or emotional state (Blair & Raver, 2016).”
Preschoolers’ Attentional and Behavioral Regulation: Differential Pathways through Poverty and Parenting
Liu, Q., Zhang, Y., & Razza, R. A. (2024) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-024-02917-9 · Cited by 7
“Due to abundant research highlighting that early poverty in ﬂ uences the acquisition of self-regulation (Blair & Raver, 2016; Evans & Kim, 2013; Lengua et al., 2015), there has been growing research interest in dissecting self-regulation and investigating how speci ﬁ c facets are shaped by…”
How does adversity relate to performance across different abilities within individuals?
Young, E. S., Vermeent, S., Frankenhuis, W. E., Nivison, M. D., Simpson, J. A., & Roisman, G. I. (2024) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579424001433 · Cited by 4
“Other research suggests that the high levels of noise exposure found in low-income communities (Blair & Raver, 2016; Seltenrich, 2017) could lead to adaptive processing of audio processing (Vannucci et al., 2023; Werchan et al., 2022).”
20-Year income volatility and cognitive function in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (1979) cohort: A replication and extension of CARDIA findings
Kezios, K., Colvin, C. L., Grasset, L., Duarte, C., Glymour, M. M., & Hazzouri, A. Z. A. (2025) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.117798 · Cited by 4
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Schooling and Academic Attainment
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Threat of war on cognitive development of refugee children
Yeter, Ö., Rabagliati, H., & Özge, D. (2022) · East European Journal of Psycholinguistics · doi:10.29038/eejpl.2022.9.2.yet · Cited by 6
Relationship between dietary diversity, eating behavior, and cognitive performance in economically disadvantaged school children
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“Reviews also indicate that the parent–child relationship plays a key role in shaping early socio-emotional and cognitive development, and that reducing parent and child stress, and improving parent–child relationships may benefit executive function [11, 12, 55].”
Relationship between structural brain differences and social factors associated with neurodevelopmental disorders: A systematic review
de Araújo, C. M., Barbosa, M. G., Ramos, A. C., Santana, V. O., Silva, I., Nordahl‐Hansen, A., & Jackowski, A. P. (2025) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106266 · Cited by 4
Working memory moderates the association between early institutional care and separation anxiety symptoms in late childhood and adolescence
Alba, L. A., Flannery, J., Shapiro, M., & Tottenham, N. (2019) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579419000452 · Cited by 4
“…mechanisms within the individual (i.e., intraindividual factors) have also been noted, and identifying these mechanisms remains an area of active research (e.g., Blair & Raver, 2016; Curtis & Cicchetti, 2007; Masten & Barnes, 2018; Raver, McCoy, Lowenstein, & Pess, 2013; Vantieghem et al., 2017).”
Background
Executive Function Deficits Mediate Effects of Poverty on Academic Achievement: An Important Target for Interventions to Enhance Neurocognitive Development in At-Risk Children
Wexler, B. E., Imal, A. E., Pittman, B. P., & Bell, M. D. (2019) · Creative Education · doi:10.4236/ce.2020.113029 · Cited by 5
“Controlled studies in animals and correlational studies in children demonstrate a link between elevated cortisol and compromised development of EF (Blair & Raver, 2016).”
Background
Neighborhood disorder development across the life-course and its relevance for predicting offending
Wojciechowski, T. W. (2020) · Criminal Justice Studies · doi:10.1080/1478601x.2020.1823384 · Cited by 4
“Further, these signs of disorder are often nested within impoverished communities and poverty can operate through multiple mechanisms to act as strain (Blair & Raver, 2016; Chaudry & Wimer, 2016).”
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Normative Data for Ten Neuropsychological Tests for the Guatemalan Pediatric Population Updated to Account for Vulnerability
Ibáñez-Alfonso, J. A., R. Company-Córdoba, de la Cadena, C. G., Simpson, I. C., Rivera, D., & Sianes, A. (2021) · Brain Science · doi:10.3390/brainsci11070842 · Cited by 3
Latent Change and Co-Occurrence of Overactive and Underactive Behavior Problems in American Early Education
McDermott, P. A., Rovine, M. J., Weiss, E. M., Gladstone, J. N., Fatima, S., & Reyes, R. S. (2022) · School Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/2372966x.2021.2000842 · Cited by 4
“…stable housing, and high-quality child-care; environmental stressors like parental depression and neighborhood violence; and persistent toxic stress (i.e., allostatic load) that hinders optimal cognitive development (Blair & Raver, 2016; Schenck-Fontaine & Panico, 2019; see Wadsworth et al., 2016).”
Background
Cortisol across preschool day relates to teacher ratings of executive functioning for children facing economic hardship
Brown, E. D., Weaver, Z., Streich, M., Shivde, G., & Garnett, M. L. (2022) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2022.07.006 · Cited by 5
Parental Practices and Environmental Differences among Infants Living in Upper-Middle and High-Income Countries: A Cross-Sectional Study
da Silva, C. F. R., Menici, V., Tudella, E., Beani, E., Barzacchi, V., Battini, R., Orsini, A. A., Cioni, G., & Sgandurra, G. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191710833 · Cited by 4
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“Research shows, however, that poverty has many negative impacts on brain development, with downstream consequences for physical and mental health (Blair & Raver, 2016; Johnson et al., 2016).”
Child Migration and School Achievement
Federico, F., & Orsolini, M. (2021) · Sustainable development goals series · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-81058-0_7 · Cited by 4
Effectiveness of two instructional methods on reasoning ability of children with hearing impairment in Nigeria
Adeniyi, S. O., & Kuku, O. O. (2018) · Specijalna edukacija i rehabilitacija · doi:10.5937/specedreh17-18600 · Cited by 4
“Optimizing education at all levels is important for both economic and developmental standpoint (Blair & Raver, 2016; Heckman, 2006) as this will reduce wastage and improve human resource development.”
Background
The Relationship Between Physical Activity and Executive Functions Among Youth in Low-Income Urban Schools in the Northeast and Southwest United States
Mala, J., McGarry, J. E., Riley, K. E., Lee, E. C., & DiStefano, L. J. (2020) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.2019-0111 · Cited by 7
Infants’ neural sensitivity to social interactions varies by income and infant‐directed speech
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Brain Syndemics: Cognitive Deficit, Pathways of Interaction, and the Biology of Inequality
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“As they point out, “in addition to reduced opportunity for types of stimulation that positively affect development, poverty is also characterized by an overabundance of types of stimulation that negatively affect development” [64].”
Background
The Trifecta of Misery and Disease Vulnerability: Poverty, Childhood Maltreatment, and Inflammation
Nemeroff, C. B. (2021) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.21010087 · Cited by 4
Perspectives on learning from neuroscience
Massonnié, J., & Thomas, M. S. C. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818630-5.14008-4 · Cited by 4
Disentangling the Effects of Exposure to Maternal Substance Misuse and Physical Abuse and Neglect on Child Behavioral Problems
Wong, R. S., Tung, K. T. S., Cheng, A. W. F., Shiu, Y. K., Wong, W. H. S., Tso, W. W. Y., Ho, M. S. P., Chan, K. L., Ho, F. K. W., Lo, C. K. M., et al. (2021) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260519849661 · Cited by 4
“…particular, the stage of infancy, typically the first 24 months after birth, is a critical period during which the structures and functions of the brain evolve rapidly and are especially sensitive to environmental stimuli (Blair & Raver, 2016; Paterson, Heim, Friedman, Choudhury, & Benasich, 2006).”
Background
The effect of social support provided to poor children on their emotional state and hope levels
SÖNGÜT, S., & Gözübüyük, G. (2025) · Journal of Pediatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.pedn.2025.01.034 · Cited by 4
Associations of executive functions with physical activity and sedentary time in children aged 5–7 years: a multi-methodological pilot study
Byman, A., Stalchenko, N., Vanhala, A., Tähti, P., Makkonen, T., Tervaniemi, M. H., & Pirjo Aunio, A. (2025) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2025.2509911 · Cited by 3
“…this development is influenced by several individual and environmental factors, such as sleep (Merín et al., 2024), nutrition (Costello et al., 2021), stress (Blair & Raver, 2016), socioeconomic status (Hackman & Farah, 2009), home environment, and parenting behaviors (Vernon-Feagans et al., 2016).”
Maternal Characteristics and Home Environment as Early Childhood Predictors of Elementary School Children’s Executive Functions in Chile
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“Western and Latin American studies suggest that children and adolescents from lower-SES families show reduced EF skills relative to children from higher-SES families (Blair & Raver, 2016; Escobar et al., 2018; Lawson et al., 2018).”
Self-Regulation Competence as a Superpower: An Integrated Framework for K-12
Trautwein, U., Eberhart, J., Dignath, C., Bonner, C. V., & Roberts, B. W. (2026) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-026-10190-z · Cited by 5
“Rather, educational interventions must be accompanied by broader societal and policy efforts to reduce inequality, foster enabling environments, and ensure that all students have a fair opportunity to develop and apply self-regulation skills (Blair & Raver, 2016; Evans & Kim, 2013).”

Authors: Blair, C., & Raver, C. C.
Affiliations: New York University (US)
Corresponding author: Blair, Clancy
ORCID: Blair, Clancy
Venue: Academic Pediatrics
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2016-04
Volume: 16
Issue: 3
Pages: S30-S36
ISSN: 1876-2859 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.acap.2016.01.010
PMC: PMC5765853
OpenAlex: W2327738691
Cited by: 543
References: 72
Citations by year: 2026: 58 · 2025: 63 · 2024: 53 · 2023: 53 · 2022: 79 · 2021: 75 · 2020: 63 · 2019: 42 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 4
FWCI: 6.30
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Academic Pediatrics (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01 HD51502, P01 HD39667)
National Institute on Drug Abuse
US Administration for Children and Families (90YR0057)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Food Security and Health in Diverse Populations
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords: poverty, childhood adversity, stress, early brain development, neuroendocrine function, executive function, cognitive ability, early intervention, prevention, child development, public policy
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Brain, Child, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Cognition, Humans, Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System, Infant, Infant, Newborn, Pituitary-Adrenal System, Poverty, Stress, Psychological, Parenting, Early Intervention, Educational, Executive Function

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Poverty, Stress, and Brain Development: New Directions for Prevention and Intervention

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