Oxygen extraction from lunar dry regolith: Thermodynamic numerical characterization of the carbothermal reduction
Open accessThe claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
CTR applied to anorthositic feedstocks (CaAl2Si2O8) exhibits reduced efficiency and altered energy balance.
“CTR applied to anorthositic feedstocks (CaAl 2 Si 2 O 8 ) exhibits reduced efficiency and altered energy balance.”
From A review and analysis of extraction methods for aluminum and oxygen from Lunar Regolith (2026) · cites this paper as Troisi et al. (2022)
Section 5.5 identifies Apollo 16 as a lunar-highland soil, and its preliminary yield table estimates less oxygen extracted from it than from the two basalt soils. The paper lists CaAl2Si2O8 among minerals in its thermodynamic data, but these yield estimates are for whole soils, not anorthositic feedstock specifically. The cited passages do not establish an altered energy balance for that feedstock. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPrior studies of carbothermal reduction applied to lunar regolith report oxygen yields of only 2.4-7.9 wt% of the feedstock, corresponding to 5.4-17.5% of the total available oxygen, with strong dependence on operating conditions and mineralogy.
“prior studies of carbothermal reduction applied to lunar regolith report oxygen yields of only 2.4 7.9 wt % of the feedstock, corresponding to 5.4 17.5 % of the total available oxygen, with strong dependence on operating conditions and mineralogy Troisi et al. (2022).”
From A review and analysis of extraction methods for aluminum and oxygen from Lunar Regolith (2026) · cites this paper as Troisi et al. (2022)
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Berman, R. G. (1988) · Journal of Petrology · doi:10.1093/petrology/29.2.445 · Cited by 2,097 · see citing works
Building components for an outpost on the lunar soil by means of a novel 3D printing technology
Cesaretti, G., Dini, E., De Kestelier, X., Colla, V., & Pambaguian, L. (2014) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2013.07.034 · Cited by 806 · see citing works
Carbide, Nitride and Boride Materials Synthesis and Processing
Weimer, A. W. (1997) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-0071-4 · Cited by 525 · see citing works
Robie, R. A., & Waldbaum, D. R. (1968) · doi:10.3133/b1259 · Cited by 480 · see citing works
Reduction of Oxide Minerals by Hydrogen Plasma: An Overview
Sabat, K. C., Rajput, P., Paramguru, R. K., Bhoi, B., & Mishra, B. K. (2013) · Plasma Chemistry and Plasma Processing · doi:10.1007/s11090-013-9484-2 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
The production of oxygen and metal from lunar regolith
Schwandt, C., Hamilton, J. A., Fray, D. J., & Crawford, I. A. (2012) · Planetary and Space Science · doi:10.1016/j.pss.2012.06.011 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Lomax, B. A., Conti, M., Khan, N., Bennett, N. S., Ganin, A. Y., & Symes, M. D. (2020) · Planetary and Space Science · doi:10.1016/j.pss.2019.104748 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Goulas, A., Binner, J. G. P., Harris, R. A., & Friel, R. J. (2017) · Applied Materials Today · doi:10.1016/j.apmt.2016.11.004 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Alba‐Simionesco, C., Fan, J., & Angell, C. A. (1999) · The Journal of Chemical Physics · doi:10.1063/1.478800 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Thermodynamics of the Si-C-O system for the production of silicon carbide and metallic silicon
Nagamori, M., Malinsky, I., & Claveau, A. (1986) · Metallurgical Transactions B · doi:10.1007/bf02670216 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Science and Engineering of Hydrogen-Based Energy Technologies
(2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/c2017-0-00578-5 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Thermophysical property models for lunar regolith
Schreiner, S. S., Dominguez, J. A., Sibille, L., & Hoffman, J. A. (2015) · Advances in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.asr.2015.12.035 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
A review towards the design of extraterrestrial structures: From regolith to human outposts
Kalapodis, N. A., Kampas, G., & Ktenidou, O. (2020) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2020.05.038 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Lunar Regolith Simulant Materials: Recommendations for Standardization, Production, and Usage
Sibille, L., Schlagheck, R. A., French, R. A., & Carpenter, P. (2006) · NASA STI Repository (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Navrotsky, A. (1975) · American Mineralogist · Cited by 80 · see citing works
The heat-capacity of ilmenite and phase equilibria in the system Fe-T-O
Anovitz, L. M., Treiman, A. H., Essene, E. J., Hemingway, B. S., WESTRUM, E. F. J., Wall, V. J., Burriel, R., & Bohlen, S. R. (1985) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/0016-7037(85)90061-4 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Production of Oxygen on the Moon: Which Processes Are Best and Why
Taylor, L. A., & Carrier, W. D. (1992) · AIAA Journal · doi:10.2514/3.48974 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Sargeant, H. M., Barber, S. J., Anand, M., Abernethy, F. A. J., Sheridan, S., Wright, I. P., & Morse, A. D. (2021) · Planetary and Space Science · doi:10.1016/j.pss.2021.105287 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Zhang, G., & Ostrovski, O. (2001) · Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly · doi:10.1179/cmq.2001.40.4.489 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
System analysis of a Moon base at the south pole: Considering landing sites, ECLSS and ISRU
Kaschubek, D., Killian, M., & Grill, L. (2021) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2021.05.004 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Lower temperature electrochemical reduction of lunar regolith simulants in molten salts
Meurisse, A., Lomax, B. A., Selmeci, Á., Conti, M., Lindner, R. C., Makaya, A., Symes, M. D., & Carpenter, J. D. (2021) · Planetary and Space Science · doi:10.1016/j.pss.2021.105408 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Zhang, G., & Ostrovski, O. (2001) · Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly · doi:10.1179/cmq.2001.40.3.317 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Reactions of metal oxides with carbon
Ryabchikov, I. V., Белов, Б. Ф., & Mizin, V. G. (2014) · Steel in Translation · doi:10.3103/s0967091214050118 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
A simulation study on the direct carbothermal reduction of SiO2 for Si metal
Lee, H.-C., Dhage, S., Akhtar, M. S., Kwak, D. H., Lee, W. J., Kim, C.-Y., & Yang, O.-B. (2010) · Current Applied Physics · doi:10.1016/j.cap.2009.11.053 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
The reduction of lunar regolith by carbothermal processing using methane
Balasubramaniam, R., Gökoğlu, S. A., & Hegde, U. (2010) · International Journal of Mineral Processing · doi:10.1016/j.minpro.2010.06.001 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Demonstrating the Solar Carbothermal Reduction of Lunar Regolith to Produce Oxygen
Gustafson, R., White, B., Fidler, M., & Muscatello, A. (2010) · 48th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting Including the New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition · doi:10.2514/6.2010-1163 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Guichelaar, P. J. (1997) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-0071-4_4 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Gmelin Handbook of Inorganic Chemistry.
Eaborn, C. (1986) · Journal of Organometallic Chemistry · doi:10.1016/s0022-328x(00)99697-9 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Carbothermal Reduction of Quartz in Methane–Hydrogen–Argon Gas Mixture
Li, X., Zhang, G., Tang, K., Ostrovski, O., & Tronstad, R. (2015) · Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B · doi:10.1007/s11663-015-0407-x · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Reduction of SiO2 to SiC Using Natural Gas
Ksiazek, M., Tangstad, M., Dalaker, H., & Ringdalen, E. (2014) · Metallurgical and Materials Transactions E · doi:10.1007/s40553-014-0027-4 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Imagining sustainable human ecosystems with power-to-x in-situ resource utilisation technology
Baldry, M., Gurieff, N. B., & Keogh, D. F. (2021) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2021.12.031 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
The regolith rocket—A hybrid rocket using lunar resources
Stoll, E., Härke, P., Linke, S., Heeg, F., & May, S. (2020) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2020.11.022 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Kinetics of Reactions Between Silica and Carbon and the Formation of Silicon Carbide
Wiik, K., & Motzfeldt, K. (1995) · MRS Proceedings · doi:10.1557/proc-410-435 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Reduction of Quartz to Silicon Monoxide by Methane-Hydrogen Mixtures
Li, X., Zhang, G., Tronstad, R., & Ostrovski, O. (2016) · Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B · doi:10.1007/s11663-016-0670-5 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) Capability Roadmap Final Report
Linne, D., Nozette, S., Downey, M. J., McKay, D. S., Johnson, R. G., McCullough, E., Martin, L., Zubrin, R. M., & GERTSCH, L. S. (2005) · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Pan, J., Li, S., Zhu, D., Xu, J., & Chou, J. (2019) · The minerals, metals & materials series · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05864-7_15 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
4 of the 40 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- [17]17. G. Heiken, D. Vaniman, B. French, Lunar Sourcebook: A user's guide to the Moon, Chapter 5, C. U. P. (1991) 121-182.
- [20]20. G. Heiken, D. Vaniman, B. French, Lunar Sourcebook: A user's guide to the Moon, Chapter 7, C. U. P. (1991) 283-356.
- [33]33. A. Tsutsumi, Thermodynamics of water splitting, Energy carriers and conver- sion systems, Edited by Tokio Ohta, Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) Vol. 1 (ISBN: 9781905839292).
- [35]35. G. Zhang, Reduction of Rutile and Ilmenite by Methane-Hydrogen Gas Mixture, A thesis in Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, The University of New South Wales Faculty of Science and Technology School of Materials Science and
- [41]41. D. M. Burt, Lunar mining of oxygen using fluorine, The Second Conference on 685 Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century, NASA-CP 3166 (1988) 423-428.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Zhang, C., Shi, L., Pei, G., Yao, Y., Li, K., Zhou, S., & Shu, G. (2023) · Energy · doi:10.1016/j.energy.2023.129230 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Geotechnical and Shear Behavior of Novel Lunar Regolith Simulants TUBS-M, TUBS-T, and TUBS-I
Windisch, L., Linke, S., Jütte, M., Baasch, J., Kwade, A., Stoll, E., & Schilde, C. (2022) · Materials · doi:10.3390/ma15238561 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Robinot, J., Rodat, S., Abanades, S., Paillet, A., & Cowley, A. (2025) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2025.05.008 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
How to make lunar soil suitable for cultivation? – A review
Ding, J., Xu, Y., Tan, J., Zhang, H., Xiong, X., Mei, C., Li, M., & Xie, G. (2024) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174603 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Prinetto, J., Colagrossi, A., Dottori, A., Troisi, I., & Lavagna, M. R. (2022) · Planetary and Space Science · doi:10.1016/j.pss.2022.105618 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citationKaur, S., Aleksandrov, A. B., Ready, W. J., Orlando, T. M., & Loutzenhiser, P. G. (2024) · Advances in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.asr.2024.01.025 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Extraction of Aluminum from Lunar Regolith through Molten Salt Electrolysis
Ortega, J. N., Sander, T. P., Smith, J. D., Rezaei, F., Bayless, D. J., Schonberg, W., Stutts, D. S., & Han, F. D. (2025) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2025.04.064 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Hybrid lunar ISRU plant: A comparative analysis with carbothermal reduction and water extraction
Ikeya, K., Guerrero-Gonzalez, F. J., Kiewiet, L., Cardin, M., Cilliers, J. J., Starr, S. O., & Hadler, K. (2025) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2025.02.004 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Lunar simulant behaviour in molten fluoride salt for ISRU applications
Maes, M., Gibilaro, M., Chamelot, P., Chiron, C., Chevrel, S., Pinet, P., Massot, L., & Favier, J. J. (2024) · Planetary and Space Science · doi:10.1016/j.pss.2024.105854 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Schild, T., Lomax, B. A., Conti, M., Aridon, G., Harries, D., & Hadler, K. (2025) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2025.02.021 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Transport of Volatiles in Agglutinates from Lunar Regolith of Chang’e-5 Mission
Li, L., Zhang, G. C., Zhang, H., Xiao, Y., Zhao, S., Song, J., Yao, W., Wang, W. H., Zou, Z., & Yang, M. (2025) · Research · doi:10.34133/research.0638 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
KRING, D. A., Fagan, A. L., Bickel, V., Deutsch, A. N., Gaddis, L. R., Groß, J., Hiesinger, H., Huning, T. M., Hurtado, J. M., Iqbal, W., et al. (2025) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2024je008905 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Dottori, A., Troisi, I., & Lavagna, M. R. (2025) · Planetary and Space Science · doi:10.1016/j.pss.2025.106154 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationThermochemical interactions between yttria‐stabilized zirconia and molten lunar regolith simulants
Yu, K., Stokes, J. L., Harder, B. J., Reidy, L. P., & Faber, K. T. (2024) · Journal of the American Ceramic Society · doi:10.1111/jace.19821 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Kaur, S., Ready, W. J., Orlando, T. M., & Loutzenhiser, P. G. (2025) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2025.03.021 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Lunar Regolith Sampling Technologies: A Critical Review
Pirrone, S. R. M., Witchalls, J., Dillenburger, J. D., Patil, T., Castro, A. C., & Hadler, K. (2025) · Space Science Reviews · doi:10.1007/s11214-025-01239-6 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Ahrens, C., Leone, G., Joutsenvaara, J., Keresztúri, Á., Calabrese, G., Schmidt, G. W., Bernal, A., & Palanco, S. (2026) · Engineering Geology · doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2026.108628 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Zanotti, G., Troisi, I., Dottori, A., & Lavagna, M. R. (2024) · Aerospace · doi:10.3390/aerospace11040295 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationThe carbothermal reduction of lunar regolith under high-vacuum conditions
Shaw, M. (2025) · Vacuum · doi:10.1016/j.vacuum.2025.114039 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
A review and analysis of extraction methods for aluminum and oxygen from Lunar Regolith
Ortega, J. N., Rupp, B., & Han, F. D. (2026) · Space and Planetary Resources · doi:10.1007/s44461-026-00010-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ikeya, K., Cardin, M., Cilliers, J. J., Starr, S. O., & Hadler, K. (2025) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2025.07.014 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Solar-driven thermal reduction of lunar regolith for in-situ resource utilization
Kaur, S., Clendenen, A. R., Александров, А. В., Jones, B. M., Ready, W. J., Orlando, T. M., & Loutzenhiser, P. G. (2025) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2025.11.015 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Li, D., Liu, H., Huang, M., & Zhou, J. (2026) · Energy Technology · doi:10.1002/ente.202502309 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ming, Z., Liu, Y., Li, Z., & Li, Z. (2024) · Vacuum · doi:10.1016/j.vacuum.2024.113397 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The In-Situ Production and Use of Metals on the Moon
Hibbitts, C. A., & Chatterjee, A. (2022) · AIAA Accelerating Space Commerce, Exploration, and New Discovery Conference (ASCEND) · doi:10.2514/6.2022-4376
A Method for the Extraction of Alumina and Silica from Lunar Regolith Using Hydrochloric Acid
Thibodeau, B. J. M. R. (2023) · doi:10.22215/etd/2023-15477
Liu, Y., Ming, Z., Li, Z. H., & Li, Z. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4799488
Cracking Activity and Characterization of Magnesium Titanium Dioxide - Silicon Dioxide Catalysts
Kumar, B. A., Dhiyaneswaran, J., Selvaraj, M., Pradeepkumar, M., & Shajeeth, S. (2024) · SAE technical papers on CD-ROM/SAE technical paper series · doi:10.4271/2024-01-5241
Morphological evolution of drilling cuttings stack from Chang'e-6 in-situ imagery
Xiang, Q., Zhang, W., Ruan, X., Liu, Y., Zheng, Y., ZHANG, G., & Jiang, S. (2026) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2026.03.045
Lunar Resources Distribution and ISRU Perspectives: Water, Oxygen, Minerals and Helium-3
Kim, Y. J. (2026) · Economic and Environmental Geology · doi:10.9719/eeg.2026.59.2.223
Ellis, D. S., Olson, J. A., Engeling, K. W., & Sankaran, R. M. (2026) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2026.05.007
Liu, D., Li, L., Wang, P., Lin, L., Tang, J., Rafique, M., Dong, S., Shuai, Y., & (86769), B. W. (2026) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2026.05.063
Zhang, G. C., Liu, X., Liu, Y., He, Y., Wang, H., Tian, Z., Yu, S., Zheng, Q., Liu, G., & Zhang, P. (2026) · Planetary and Space Science · doi:10.1016/j.pss.2026.106306
- Authors
- Troisi, I., Lunghi, P., & Lavagna, M.
- Affiliations
- Politecnico di Milano (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Troisi, Ivan
- Venue
- Acta Astronautica
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2022-10
- Volume
- 199
- Pages
- 113-124
- ISSN
- 0094-5765 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4286252374
- Semantic Scholar
- fc0493ab8720656a2a25b4ef58020d18eb023ccb
- Cited by
- 33
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 3
- FWCI
- 2.50
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Acta Astronautica (publishedVersion)
- Virtual Community of Pathological Anatomy (University of Castilla La Mancha) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Agenzia Spaziale Italiana
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Planetary Science and Exploration
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Chemical Looping and Thermochemical Processes
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Metallurgical Processes and Thermodynamics
- Keywords
- oxygen extraction, carbothermal reduction, in-situ resource utilization, Gibbs free energy, thermodynamic modeling, SiO2 reduction, TiO2 reduction, lunar regolith, oxygen yield
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
